FUEL OBTAINED FROM REMAINS OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS

Fossil Fuel 

     The world is dynamic; it is constantly moving and developing and to fuel this development, we require energy. Our primary source of energy is fossil fuels. The three main types of fossil fuels are petroleum, coal and natural gas. Fossil fuels are a cornerstone of our society and therefore, it is imperative to understand how they work.

     Humans extract fossil fuels from under the surface of the Earth and burn them to release usable energy. Fossil fuels are nothing but hydrocarbon-containing substances that are formed underground, from the remains of dead plants and animals.

History of Fossil Fuels: Thousands of years ago, ancient civilisations used petroleum in various ways. In ancient Babylon, petroleum in its natural form was used for construction and while building roads and walls. It was also used for lighting.

     The Romans used burning petroleum as a weapon in warfare. Some cultures such as the Persians, used petroleum for skin treatments as they believed it had therapeutic benefits. Native Americans would use it to glue arrows to shafts and knives to handles.

     Coal has been mined and used for more than 1,000 years. In the 15^th and 16^th centuries, the Europeans discovered that chimneys could be made from firebricks and started using coal to heat homes. But it wasn't until the middle of the 18^th century when the Industrial revolution began in Britain that coal, later oil and natural gas, became vital energy sources for industry and households in the UK and overseas.

The process: All the energy in fossil fuels originates from sun. Plants use solar energy for photosynthesis, which helps them to prepare food and grow. Animals eat plants and other animals and thus make use of the energy that had once come from the sun. Since both plants and animals are living beings, they contain carbon and hydrogen, which when burnt produce energy. 

     As dead plants and animals get buried underground, they are subjected to increased heat and pressure, which transfers them into fossils. As the heat increases, the fossil molecules break apart. The initial breakdown creates partial changes to their properties. But after millions of years underground, the fossils take on new properties.

Today, humans extract these resources through coal mining and the drilling of oil and gas wells on land and offshore. They are sought after because they contain stored energy in the form of hydrocarbons. 

     When burned, fossil fuels power machinery and provide electricity and fuel for transportation, which are essential to modern-day life. They also produce crucial ingredients that are used in the chemical industry.

Applications: Crude oil is found in underground areas called reservoirs and is used to make products such as gasoline and electricity. Crude oil is also used to produce transportation fuel for jets and other automobiles. The by-products of this process are used to produce chemicals, plastics, lubricants, tars, waxes and medicines. Many fertilisers and pesticides are also made from either crude oil or its by-products.

    Coal is used in the generation of electricity. It is also used in the steel industry, pharmaceutical industry, cement manufacturing and the manufacturing of paper. Products like dyes, aspirins, soaps, fibres, plastics and solvents contain coal or a coal by-product.

     Natural gas is used in cooking appliances like fuel stoves and for heating homes, water and buildings. It also provides electricity and is used in steel foundries, glass foundries, manufacturing hubs and aluminium smelters. It is used produce paints, fertilisers, plastics and dyes. It is also used in transportation as CNG or LNG.

Advantages: Fossil fuels can generate large amounts of energy. They are easily traceable, cost-effective, safe to transport and give us economically important by-products.

Disadvantages: Fossil fuels emit greenhouse gases that destroy the ozone layer and cause global warming. They are non-renewable. The combustion of fossil fuels makes the environment more acidic. This has led to unpredictable and harmful changes in the environment. Burning of fossil fuels causes air pollution. It also affects the fertility of soil and the quality of drinking water.

A HORSE IN THE SEA

Seahorse

     Have you seen the movie "Finding Nemo"? In the film, Nemo meets Sheldon and his friends in a school under the sea. Sheldon is a sea horse, a distinct and wonderful fish. Seahorses are very small marine fishes from a family named Hippocampus. Hippocampus is a Greek word derived from two different words --- "hippo" means horse and "kampos" means "sea monster". As the head of this fish looks like a horse hence named Seahorse. 

     There are almost 25-30 different types of seahorses spread from tropical and temperate coastal waters. Their size varies from 1.5 to 35.5cm. They have external protection in the form of a skeleton on their body which is called as armor. It protects them against the predators. They have a curled prehensile tail. Prehensile is the ability to grab or hold. Their tail helps them to grab or hold an object. Body of a seahorse is stretched over boney plates which are arranged in the form of rings across the body.

     The position of a seahorse while swimming is another distinct characteristic which makes them different from other fishes. They swim upright. They have dorsal black fins which are used to propel in the water. A fin flaps up to 35 times per second. The fins are located on the either side of the head. Normally neck is a body part which you can see in land animals. But very interestingly, a seahorse has a flexible and very well-defined neck.

     The abdomen of male seahorse is called as pouch. It is very similar to the kangaroo's pouch that carries the baby. The female seahorse deposits thousands of eggs in the male's pouch which is then carried by the male for 9 to 45 days until fully developed.

Some more facts:

* Seahorse is a very poor swimmer. H. Zosterae which is a dwarf seahorse is world's slowest moving fish. Its top speed is 5 feet per hour.

* Most often, seahorses swim in pairs with their tails linked together.

* To move up and down, seahorses adjust the air volume in their bladder.

* Planktons and tiny fish is their food. They almost eat constantly.

* Their lifespan is about 3 to 4 years.

* As they are very bad swimmers, they anchor themselves to coral or any such thing.

* Due to overfishing and destruction of their habitat, seahorses are endangered.

* In Chinese medicine their consumption is widespread.

HONOURING THE TRIUMPH OF GOOD OVER EVIL

 Durga Puja

     Durga Puja, also known as Durgotsava, is one of the most significant and widely celebrated Hindu festivals, primarily in the eastern part of India, particularly West Bengal. The festival holds immense religious, cultural and social significance.

Worship of Goddess Durga: Durga Puja is dedicated to the worship of Goddess Durga, who symbolises the divine feminine energy and is seen as the embodiment of Shakti or the supreme power. During this festival, she is honoured as the ultimate source of strength and protection.

Victory of good over evil: Durga Puja celebrates the victory of Goddess Durga over the buffalo demon Mahishasura. It symbolises the triumph of good over evil, righteousness over unrighteousness, and the vanquishing of inner demons and vices.

Unity and community bonding: Durga Puja brings communities together. It is not just a religious event but a time for people to come together, irrespective of caste, creed or social status. Communities set up elaborate pandals (temporary structures) where the idol of Goddess Durga is placed, and people from all walks of life visit these pandals to offer prayers and enjoy cultural programmes.

Art and culture: Durga Puja is a celebration of art and culture. Elaborate idols of Goddess Durga are crafted, often with intricate details, and the artistic themes vary from year to year. The festival features a wide array of cultural performances, including music, dance, drama and poetry readings.

Festive atmosphere: The festival creates a vibrant and joyous atmosphere. The streets are adorned with deocorations, lights and colourful artwork. Processions with idols, music and dance performances make the atmosphere lively and celebratory.

Reverence for the female divine: Durga Puja underscores the significance of the feminine divine. It is a time to celebrate the power, grace and nurturing aspects of the goddess. Women in particular are honoured during this festival.

Prayer and devotion: Devotees visit the Puja pandal to offer prayers, seek blessings and perform rituals. They express their devotion to Goddess Durga and seek her protection and guidance.

Culmination of Navaratri: Durga Puja marks the culmination of the nine-night festival of Navaratri. Each day of Navaratri is dedicated to a different form of goddess, leading to the final celebration of Durga Puja on the tenth day, known as Vijayadashami.

     Durga Puja is a time of cultural exuberance, religious fervour and social harmony. It transcends religious boundaries and has a special place in the hearts of people, not only for its religious significance but also for the sense of unity, creativity and festivity it brings to the community.

THE MODEST STATESMAN

 Lal Bahadur Shastri

     India's second Prime Minister, Lal Bahadur Shastri was born on 2 October 1904. His father died when he was 18 months old and he grew up at his grandfather's house. Since he was very slightly built, his grandpa affectionately called him 'Nanhe'. 

     One day, Nanhe and his friends were raiding a mango tree when they were surprised by the gardener. The gardener caught Nanhe and slapped him. 

     "Why did you slap me?" asked the boy. "Don't you know I have no father?"

     "That means you'll have to look after your mother and how can a thief do that?" asked the gardener. The gardener's words made the boy aware of his responsibilities and a change came over him. He grew up to be one of the leaders of our country.

     Shastri became Prime Minister at a time of turmoil. Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru had just died and war had erupted with Pakistan in 1965. The country was reeling under the drought. Quite a tough task for a new prime minister to handle.

     But he took it all in his stride. He inspired the people with his slogan, 'Jai Jawan Jai Kisan'. The Indo-Pakistan war would have continued but Russia intervened and both India and Pakistan agreed to sign the Tashkent Agreement on 11 January 1966. Just a few hours after signing the agreement, Shastri died of a massive heart attack.

     Shastri was awarded the 'Bharat Ratna' posthumously. His memeorial 'Vijay Ghat' in Delhi is a constant reminder of a great administrator and a fantastic human being.

A WALK TO REMEMBER

 Spacewalk

     When an astronaut steps out of the spacecraft in space, it is termed a spacewalk. It is technically known as extravehicular activity (EVA).

     The astronauts perform various tasks on a spacewalk. They conduct science experiments in space to study how the space environment affects the results. They repair satellites while they are in orbit. They also test new equipment.

     Astronauts wear pressurised spacesuits filled with oxygen. For the duration of the spacewalk, the astronaut is usually tethered i.e. he is anchored to the spacecraft with the help of a cable. For safety purposes, he also wears a backpack-like device called SAFER ( Simplified Aid For EVA Rescue). If the astronaut gets detached, SAFER uses small jet thrusters to help him move and return to the spacecraft.

     The first spacewalk was performed by Russian cosmonaut, Alexey Leonov, on March 18, 1965. It lasted 10 minutes. A few weeks later, Ed White became the first NASA astronaut to perform a 23 minute long spacewalk on June 3.

     Russian cosmonaut Anatoly Solovyev holds the world record for the most spacewalks and spent more than 82 hours outside in space.

     Peggy Whitson holds the record for the most number of spacewalks by a woman (ten). She also has the most spacewalk time for a woman (60 hours, 21 minutes) to her credit.

DIVINE VENGEANCE

The fall of Sybaris

     A sybarite is a person who is devoted to luxury and pleasure. The word is related to Sybaris, an ancient Greek city noted for its wealth and opulence in present-day southern Italy.

     In 720 B.C., the ancient Greeks founded the city as a colony near the present-day city of Terranova di Sibari in southern Italy. The inhabitants of Sybaris known as Sybarites, were very fortunate. Their land was extraordinarily fertile and their location by the sea brought them a lucrative trade. Living was easy in Sybaris, and over the time, the Sybarites became known all over the ancient world for their indulgence in pleasure and love of frivolous luxury. By the 6^th century, Sybaris had attained a degree of wealth and power which was unprecedented among Greek cities and which earned them the admiration of the rest of the Hellenic world.

     In 510 B.C., Sybaris was rocked by political dissensions. War broke out between Sybaris and Crotona. Although the Sybarite army was 300,000 strong and the Crotoniats were less than a third in number, the latter put the Sybarites to flight and pursued them to the gates of their city, which they then destroyed. The fall of Sybaris was viewed by many Greeks as a divine vengeance upon the Sybarites for their pride and arrogance, caused by their excessive prosperity.

DO YOU KNOW

 What is the maximum distance the human eye can see when unobstructed?

     Dust, water vapour and pollution in the air will rarely let you see more than 12 miles even on a clear day. 

     Often, the curvature of the Earth gets in the way first --- at sea level, for example, the horizon is only 2.9 miles away. 

     On the top of Mount Everest, you could theoretically see for 211 miles, but in practice cloud gets in the way. 

     For a truly unobstructed view, look up. 

     On a perfectly clear night with no Moon in the sky you can see the Andromeda galaxy, which is 2.25 million light years away.