India’s weather tracker

INDIA METEOROLOGICAL DEPARTMENT (IMD)

On January 15, 2025, the India Meteorological Department (IMD) will turn 150 years old. 

The organisation was set up by the provincial British government in the country in 1875, and its first (Imperial) Meteorological Reporter was Henry Francis Blanford. The IMD’s genesis can be traced to the importance of the monsoons over South Asia and the formation effects of cyclones from the Indian Ocean. 

Its formation was particularly accelerated by the 1864 Calcutta cyclone, which devastated the city and left more than 60,000 people dead, and the Orissa famine that followed just two years later because the monsoons had failed. So the government at the time decided to funnel weather data collected around the country into a single set of records, managed by bespoke organisation. This organisation was the IMD. 

It was originally headquartered in Calcutta but by 1944 had moved to New Delhi. In independent India, the IMD became a member of the World Meteorological Organisation in 1949. 

The IMD currently operates six Regional Meteorological Centres, a Meteorological Centre in every State capital, plus a panoply of centres for various meteorological services. Aside from tracking and studying phenomena like rainfall and cyclones, the IMD helps record earth quakes and atmospheric pollution and generates alerts and warnings about impending anomalous weather. It also maintains a complicated communications system that collects data from a variety of sources, including ground observatories, naval vessels, atmospheric balloons and satellites. 

INDIAN MATHEMATICIAN

D. R. Kaprekar

Indian mathematician D. R. Kaprekar is best remembered for his discovery of the Kaprekar constant in 1976. The constant is the number 6174.

Take any four-digit number in which not all digits are alike. Arrange the digits in descending order and then reverse them to make a new number. Subtract the new number from the first number. If this process is repeated with the difference, eventually in about eight steps, the constant 6174 is arrived at.

Example: 4527

7542 - 2457 = 5085

8550 - 0558 = 7992

9972 - 2799 = 7173

7731 - 1377 = 6354

6543 - 3456 = 3087

8730 - 0378 = 8352

8532 - 2358 = 6174

7641 - 1467 = 6174

STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS

Dreams 

The human brain is a very complex organ that remains active even when we are asleep, and creates vivid experiences that we call 'dreams'. 

What are dreams? In simple words, dreams are a natural phenomenon that occurs during our sleep, primarily because of the Rapid Eye Movement (REM) stage. 

The mysterious occurances of dreams are studied from scientific and psychological perspectives, and it is believed that dreams occur because of various neurological, psychological and environmental factors. 

In 'The Interpretation of Dreams', a book published by Sigmund Freud in 1899, Freud introduces the theory of unconscious to dream Interpretation. According to the father of psychoanalysis, dreams are formed because of two mental processes. The first process involves unconscious forces that construct a wish and are expressed by a dream. The second process is a form of censorship that forcibly distorts the expression of wish. 

Freud viewed all dreams as forms of 'wish fulfilment', and he stated in his work, 'The Interpretation of Dreams', that "My presumption that dreams can be interpreted at once puts me in opposition to the ruling theory and in fact to every theory of dreams..."

He believed that dreams are the window to a person’s subconscious mind and they can reveal the individual’s unconscious desires, thoughts and motivations. 

Freud had his perspectives and ideas on the occurrence of dreams, but apart from these perspectives, there are various other theories on why people dream, and some of these ideas behind the occurrence of dreams are:

● Memory consolidation: Dreams help to consolidate memories, especially during REM sleep. The brain's activity while dreaming is similar to processing the memories whilst you are awake. 

● Increase in dopamine and acetylcholine levels: During REM sleep, the levels of dopamine and acetylcholine Increases, which leads to hallucinations. 

● Emotional processing: It is believed that dreams help you process and manage your emotions. That is why at times when you are stressed or anxious, you tend to have vivid dreams, and sometimes even nightmares. 

● Sorting through thoughts are feelings: This is another theory behind why dreams occur. It is often believed that dreams help you sort through your complicated thoughts and feelings. 

● Blocking of stimuli: Dreams can help the brain block the stimuli that can interfere with your memory and learning. 

How long does a dream last?

The longevity of dreams can vary. They can last for a few seconds or even for about 20-30 minutes. Sometimes people tend to remember their dreams when they are awakened during the REM phase. Some studies also reveal that an average person has about three to five dreams per night, and some may have even seven. But these dreams are often forgotten. 

A CLEANER AND GREENER TOMORROW

Electric Vehicles

Electric vehicles (EVs) are like magical cars that run on electricity instead of petrol or diesel. They are becoming increasingly popular in India and all around the world.

What are Electric Vehicles? Electric vehicles, also known as EVs, are a special kind of car. Instead of a traditional petrol or diesel engine, these cars use electricity to move. They have big batteries inside them, just like the one in your remote control car, but much bigger!

How Do They Work? EVs work fascinatingly. They have an electric motor that gets its power from the big battery. When you press the accelerator pedal, the electric motor starts turning the wheels, and the car moves. It’s like a silent and super-fast toy car.

Why Are EVs Important? EVs are essential for many reasons. First, they are much better for the environment. When regular cars use petrol or diesel, they produce harmful gases that make the air dirty and cause climate change. EVs, on the other hand, produce zero emissions because they run on clean electricity.

Cost-Efficient: Electric cars are also cost-efficient in the long run. Though they might be a bit more expensive, they save money because electricity is cheaper than petrol or diesel. Plus, you don’t need to change the oil, and EVs have fewer moving parts, so they don’t need as much maintenance.

Help Reduce Noise Pollution: EVs are incredibly quiet, making them great for cities. Traditional cars can be noisy, but with electric cars, you can enjoy a peaceful drive without the loud engine sounds.

Charging an EV: You need to charge an EV, just like charging your tablet or phone, to make it go. You can do this at home by plugging the car into a special socket or finding charging stations around the city. Some EVs can go a long way on a single charge, just like your toy car, lasting a long time with fresh batteries.

Electric Cars in India: Electric vehicles are catching on in India too! Many car companies are making electric cars, and you can see them on the roads. The Indian government also gives incentives and support to promote EVs to make our air cleaner.

So, electric vehicles are like the heroes of the car world, helping to fight air pollution and make the world a cleaner and greener place. They are not only cool but also kind to the planet. 

WORLD’S FIRST X-RAY

Hand of Rontgen's wife

In 1895, Wilhelm Conrad Rontgen, professor of physics, University of Wurburg in Germany, was doing experiments with electrical discharges in evacuated glass tubes. 

Late in 1895, Wilhelm Rontegen was alone at night doing his experiments, this time in the dark and noticed a glow was produced on the wall, which he knew was not caused by fluorescence or visible light. He named these new, unidentified rays 'X' or if you prefer; X-rays. 

After several months of playing with his discovery he noticed that the objects placed in the path of rays cast shadows and created images on the wall. Soon after, he used a photographic plate and had his wife, Frau Rontgen, place her hand in the path of the X-rays, creating the world’s first X-ray picture. 

In 1901, Wilhelm Rontgen was awarded the very first Nobel Prize for this discovery. 

MATHEMATICIAN

Pythagoras

One of the most famous names in the history of mathematics is Pythagoras. He is recognised as the first true mathematician. Pythagoras made influential contributions to philosophy and religion in the late 6th century BC. He is often revered as a great mathematician, mystic and scientist and is best known for the Pythagorean Theorem which bears his name.

Early Life: He was born on the Greek Island – Samos in the eastern Aegean. His birth date is estimated to be somewhere in 570 BC. His father was a merchant and travelled a lot for business. Pythagoras also accompanied his father in various expeditions.

Inspiration: When Pythagoras was 18, he met Thales - the first known Greek philosopher and scientist. It was this meeting which triggered his interest in the science of mathematics and astronomy. Thales advised him to travel to Egypt and explore these avenues. Pythagoras spent years in Egypt in search of all available knowledge and received wisdom from an Egyptian priest Oenuphis of Heliopolis.

Mathematikoi: In around 530 BC, Pythagoras settled in Croton- Italy, where he founded a philosophical and religious school that instantly attracted many followers. He established and headed a society called Mathematikoi. The members of his society lived permanently together and followed strict rules. Pythagoras taught all the members of the society personally.

Pythagorean Theorem: Pythagoras has commonly been credited for discovering the Pythagorean Theorem of geometry. It is widely believed that Pythagoras or his students were the first to construct its proof. Pythagoras believed that numbers had personalities like perfect or incomplete, masculine or feminine, beautiful or ugly. He also studied properties of numbers which would be familiar to mathematicians today like even and odd numbers.

Later years: Pythagoras desired to stay out of politics, yet his society was always affected by politics. In 510 BC Croton attacked and defeated its neighbour Sybaris and there are certainly some suggestions that Pythagoras became involved in the dispute. Then in around 508 BC the Pythagorean Society at Croton was attacked by Cylon, a noble from Croton itself. Pythagoras escaped to Metapontium and the most authors say he died there. His society expended rapidly after 500 BC and its contributions to mathematics are still recognised and respected.

TECHNOLOGY USED FOR FACE RECOGNITION

Facial Recognition Technology

Facial recognition Technology is a cutting-edge innovation that identifies and verifies individuals based on their unique facial features. 

Some smartphones use facial recognition technology to recognise a face and unlock the phone. Here, the technology simply identifies and recognises a person as the sole owner of the device, thus limiting access to others. Beyond unlocking phones, facial recognition is used in other places too, to identify people in photos, videos or in real time. It is a technology that compares a picture of a person’s face to a bunch of other faces stored in a computer in order to identify or confirm an individual’s identity. 

The biometric software used in facial recognition technology uses mathematics to understand and remember how a person’s face looks and stores it as a faceprint. Deep learning algorithms are used to compare a live capture or digital image to the stored faceprint. 

How it works 

● Step 1: Face detection 

The camera looks at a picture of a face. This can be just one face or a bunch of faces in a group. 

● Step 2: Face analysis 

Next, the camera closely examines the face and studies it. It pays attention to things like how far apart the eyes are, how deep the eyes are set, how long the face is from the top of the forehead to the bottom of the chin and the unique shapes of the cheeks, lips, ears and chin. These are the particular points that make each face different. 

● Step 3: Converting the face into numbers 

The camera changes the face picture into a code made of numbers. It’s like turning your face into mathematical formula. This code is called a faceprint. Just like your fingerprint, your faceprint is also unique. 

● Step 4: Finding a match 

Now, when the faceprint is compared to a bunch of other faceprints stored in a computer, it is looking for a matching puzzle piece. If the faceprint matches the one in the computer, the computer would have found the face it belongs to. 

How is it used 

● Unlocking phones: New mobile phones now use facial recognition to unlock the device. This helps protect personal information and keeps sensitive data safe, especially if the phone gets stolen. 

● Law enforcement: Facial recognition is used to identify people quickly and accurately. This is particularly useful in urgent situations when the police need to find someone dangerous or a person involved in a crime. Officers can also use their smartphones or other portable devices to take pictures of people and compare them instantly to a database of known faces to identify wanted individuals. 

● Airports: Facial recognition is being used at security points within airports to make sure travellers are who they say they are. For example, in Indian airports, Digi Yatra is being used to allow travellers to move through airport checkpoints without using physical documents. Instead, they can use their face to prove their identity, which is linked to their boarding pass. 

● Finding missing persons: Facial recognition can also be used to find missing persons. When reported, the missing person’s photo is added to a database. If their face is recognised at places where cameras are placed, such as airports, roads or railway stations, law enforcement can be notified, making it easier to find them. 

It's important to note that while facial recognition can be very useful, there are also concerns about privacy, security and potential misuse of technology. We need to make sure we take the maximum advantage of it while also making it less risky. 

Did you know?

Automated facial recognition was pioneered in the 1960s by Woody Bledsoe, Helen Chan Wolf and Charles Bisson, whose work focused on teaching computers to recognise human faces. 

AQUATIC ENGINEERING

Lessons from fish

Have you ever wondered what boats and fish have in common? You might think they’re completely different, but here’s a fun fact: some of the fastest and most efficient boats are designed to mimic the shapes of fish! Yes, that's right - engineers and scientists study fish to make boats better. But how does that work? Let's find out! 

Fish are incredible swimmers. They’ve been perfecting their moves for millions of years, and each species has unique adaptations that help it glide through the water effortlessly. Scientists noticed that the shape of a fish's body plays a huge role in how it moves. Some fish have sleek, streamlined bodies, perfect for speed, while others have broader bodies for stability and maneuverability. 

Take the tuna, for example. Tuna-fish are built for speed, with a streamlined, torpedo-shaped body that cuts through water with minimal resistance. By designing boat hulls that mimic this shape, engineers create boats that can move faster and use less fuel. 

Dolphins, although not fish, are also inspiring. Their smooth, curved bodies and flexible spines allow them to leap and swim with grace and speed. Boats designed with dolphin-like curves can glide over waves more smoothly, making for a faster and more comfortable ride. 

Engineers are constantly experimenting with new designs, taking inspiration from various sea creatures. Imagine a submarine that moves like a squid or a speedboat that mimics the agile movements of a marlin. The possibilities are endless and exciting! 

So, why is this important? By designing boats that move more efficiently through the water, we can save fuel, reduce pollution, and explore our oceans more effectively. Plus, it’s a great example of how we can learn from nature to make our world better. 

Next time you’re by the water, take a moment to watch the fish. Think about how they move and what makes them special. Who knows? You might come up with the next big idea for boat design! 

Remember, the world is full of amazing connections just waiting to be discovered. 

DISPLAY OF LIGHT WITH SOUND

Firecrackers and Fireworks

Explosive firecrackers and brilliant fireworks are the hallmarks of the joyous Diwali festival.

Be it the sparkling phooljhari, spinning chakra, fountainlike anaar, flying rocket or the Laxmi bomb — the dazzling fireworks captivate one and all during the days of the festival of lights.

Bursting firecrackers is an ancient practice that has its origins in China. It is said that a Chinese monk named Li Tian stuffed a green bamboo with gunpowder and threw it into a fire. The bamboo exploded suddenly and thus was born the firecracker. 

Firecrackers go off with a bang where as fireworks are a visual delight, setting the night skies ablaze with their splendour. Also called pyrotechnics, fireworks shows are not just about noise but also about light, smoke and colour.

The Recipe

A firecracker consists of gunpowder or flash powder wrapped very tightly in a paper tube, with a fuse. Gunpowder is a combustible mixture of potassium nitrate, charcoal and sulphur. These ingredients react with each other chemically to produce nitrogen and carbon dioxide gases when heat is applied by lighting the fuse. As the heated gases expand, the paper wrapping is ripped apart, producing the explosive sound. Flash powder burns quicker than gun powder and produces a loud bang with a flash of light.

Various types of fireworks produce different kinds of visual and sound effects depending on the chemicals stuffed in them. The most common component is aluminium, which emits silvery white sparks. Potassium imparts a violet shade while barium is used to create green colour. The pyrotechnic composition thus determines whether the firework emits a lot of smoke, glitters in a palm tree effect, whistles or crackles upon explosion.

Industrial Centre

Sivakasi is the fireworks capital of India with more than 600 manufacturers generating an annual turnover of Rs 7,000 crores. Dry climate and scanty rainfall as well as easy availability of raw materials make Sivakasi ideal for the fireworks industry. An impressed Jawaharlal Nehru nicknamed the industrial town ‘Kutty Japan’ (Mini Japan). However, Sivakasi was condemned for its use of child labour and today, steps have been taken to eradicate the practice.

The Darker Side

While fireworks continue to dazzle, they also create air, water and noise pollution apart from causing serious injuries. According to a 2016 study by the Pune-based Chest Research Foundation, burning a single cracker emits pollutants equal to the burning of 500 cigarettes at a time. The smoke contains traces of heavy metals and other toxic chemicals such as sulphur dioxide, magnesium and nitrates, which lead to health problems, especially respiratory ailments. Even the noise from the crackers— with decibel levels in excess of 90 — is harmful. Last year, the Supreme Court banned the sale of firecrackers in Delhi NCR. The smoke combined with the wintry mist leads to a spike in the levels of fine particulate matter with a diameter of 2.5 micrometres or less (PM 2.5) in the air. These particles, which are 30 times finer than human hair, accumulate in the internal organs and bloodstream, causing sickness.

People, especially children, burst firecrackers from very close quarters, about a foot away. So they directly inhale the smoke pollutants in large quantities. Of all the firecrackers, the snake tablet burns for less than 10 seconds but produces the highest levels of PM 2.5, followed by the ladi, phooljhari, chakri and anar.

Fast Facts

◆ At the stroke of midnight on 1 January 2016, wide eyed spectators witnessed the world’s largest display of 8,10,904 fireworks in the Philippine Arena, an indoor stadium in the Philippines. The show lastedfor an hour — a Guinness World Record!

◆ In May 2010, as many as 1,25,801 rockets were launched in 30 seconds in a record-making event in Cebu, Philippines.

◆ China is the largest manufacturer and exporter of fireworks in the world.

FOR SECURITY PURPOSE

If AI is so clever, why can't it solve a CAPTCHA?

CAPTCHAs (Completely Automated Public Turing test to tell Computers and Humans Apart) are special puzzles on the internet made to tell the difference between humans and computers. They’re meant to be tricky for machines but easy for people to solve.

Here’s why AI, which is like a very clever computer, sometimes has trouble with CAPTCHAs:

HARD TO SEE: CAPTCHAs often show wobbly letters, numbers or pictures that are hard to read. While AI is good at recognising normal images and text, CAPTCHAs are made to be confusing so that computers can’t easily figure them out.

ALWAYS CHANGING: As computers get better at solving certain CAPTCHAs, new and harder ones are created to stay ahead. This means that CAPTCHAs are always being made trickier to keep computers from solving them.

HOW AI THINKS: AI doesn’t ‘see’ things like humans do. It looks for patterns in what it’s  been taught. If a CAPTCHA breaks these patterns by being extra confusing, the AI might not be able to solve it.

KEEPING THINGS SAFE: The main job of CAPTCHAs is to stop robots (automated programs) from doing things like making fake accounts or sending lots of spam. Even though AI can sometimes solve CAPTCHAs, letting it do that would ruin the whole point of using them for security.

So, even though AI is very clever, CAPTCHAs are designed to be tricky on purpose, so computers can’t easily get past them. That said, AI is getting better and better at this. In fact, a 2023 study showed that most AI can solve CAPTCHA with a 96% accuracy – while humans’ accuracy ranges from 50-86%!

STORY OF MATCH BOX

Rediscovering fire with a little stick

From striking stones against each other to lighting a matchstick, humans have come a long way when it comes to igniting fire. The first matchstick was invented accidentally by John Walker, an English chemist. Walker was stunned when a chemical coating stick burst into flames after contact with his stone fireplace. After this, he created a first prototype of the modern matchstick. Initially named ‘friction lights’, it became a trend in the market. However, Walker did not patent his invention. Samuel Jones launched matchsticks and called them ‘Lucifers’. They burst into unpredictable flames, emitting a peculiar smell. The tips of these matches contained a coating of antimony sulphide, potassium chlorate, starch and gum. These sticks could be ignited when stroked between folded sandpaper. The credit for creating noiseless matchsticks goes to Janos Irinyi, a student, in 1835. He replaced potassium chlorate with lead dioxide. This resulted in the sticks burning evenly throughout. Eventually, the safety matches we see today were invented by Swedish inventor and professor Gustaf Erik Pasch in 1844. After a decade, John Edvard Lundstrom improvised on the design. 

Ever wondered how a matchstick lights up with a single spark? The head of the match consists of antimony trisulfide, which acts as the fuel. Potassium chlorate aids in the fuel burning, leading to ignition of the matchstick. Whereas ammonium phosphate plays the other role, preventing the matchstick from emitting too much smoke after being extinguished. When you light a match, the flame travels downwards. This is due to the wax present on the matchstick. Glue holds all this together. The dye makes the matchstick look more presentable! Powdered glass is present on the striking surface, for friction, whereas red phosphorus ignites the flame. When you strike the match against the powdered glass, it creates friction, which leads to heat, and this converts red phosphorus to white phosphorus. White phosphorus is extremely volatile, and reacts with oxygen in the air. This results in the matchstick igniting. The flame that you see in the matchstick is due to heat which ignites the potassium chlorate. Potassium chlorate is an oxidiser, aiding in burning of the fuel by supplying more oxygen. This oxygen in turn mixes with antimony trisulfide, ensuring that the flame lasts longer. Paraffin wax is coated along the matchstick, ensuring that the flame travels all down the match, across the wooden stick. After the matchstick is extinguished, a familiar burnt scent is released. This occurs as the antimony oxidises and sulphur oxides form. The smoke that emanates is from tiny unburnt particles, from the incomplete combustion process. Usually, these particles are very minute, but when grouped together, they form smoke. A little amount of water vapour is also present. 

Matchboxes were perfected over time by Lundstrom and his younger brother Carl. Boxes were created as per the size and use of the matchsticks. Until 1830, the matchsticks were known as Lucifer matches. However, cigarette lighters were invented in 1816, much before matches were invented. Today, around the world, about half a trillion matches are used each year.

ROTATION PERIOD OF THE SUN

Does the sun rotate?

Yes. The sun too rotates about its axis. But unlike the earth, which has a rotation period of one day, the sun has a differential rotation. That is, all parts of the sun do not have the same period of rotation. 

The period of rotation near its equator is 26.5 days, at sun spot zone (16 degrees north) it is 27.3 days, and at the pole it is 31.1 days. 

The sun’s enormous core temperature of 15 million degrees Kelvin leaves all its constituents in a high­-pressure gaseous state called a plasma. 

For the purpose of certain calculations, the top and the bottom ends of the visible sphere of the sun are designated as north and south poles respectively. 

Photographs are taken daily and the movements of the spots, filaments and plages are observed for various latitudes and longitudes for a long period of time. From this, the sidereal rotation is calculated.

The reason behind this phenomenon is still a puzzle to solar physicists. 

VR

Virtual Reality 

Virtual Reality is an exciting technology that allows individuals to explore new environments, play games and learn in a completely immersive manner. It offers an interactive and educational experience that is both enjoyable and engaging. 

In 1968, Ivan Sutherland and his student, Bob Sproull, created first AR/VR mounted display connected to a computer, also known as the Ultimate Display. 

What is Virtual Reality?

Virtual Reality (VR) is computer-generated 3D environment that enables users to explore and interact with scenes and objects that appear to be real. Software is used to produce games, sounds and other sensations that create the illusion that the person is physically present in that environment. 

How does VR work?

VR headsets are wearable devices that track sensory information. When wearing a VR handset, your natural field of view is replaced with a computer-generated one. The headset projects a 360-degree digital environment that can be explored and navigated. Various electronic components such as display screens, 3D graphics and sound cards and process accelerator cards, enhance the content produced using cameras, motion sensors, infrared LEDs and speakers. The future of virtual reality is moving towards multisensory experiences, aiming for greater realism to enhance user immersion. 

Types of Virtual Reality 

● Non-immersive VR: Non-immersive interaction in the virtual environment is indirect, users do not experience the sensation of being physically present. The user remains aware of their physical surroundings while simultaneously accessing a 3D simulated environment through a computer screen. Control over the digital environment is achieved using devices like a keyboard, mouse, joystick and other peripherals. Examples of non-immersive VR include video games or websites that enable users to design room decor. 

● Semi-immersive VR: Interaction in the semi-immersive virtual environment is partial. Users feel as if they are in a different reality when focused on the digital image, yet remain connected to their physical surroundings. This set up involves a large concave screen, a projection system, a monitor and glasses or handsets with high-end computer graphics. An example of semi-immersive virtual reality is a flight simulator used by airlines and militaries to train pilots. 

● Fully-immersive VR: Fully-immersive VR completely envelopes the user in a simulated 3D world. This type of VR incorporates sight, sound and sometimes touch. Users wear specialised equipment such as helmets, goggles or glasses, a head-mounted display (HMD) and gloves, effectively disconnecting them from the physical world. Although fully-immersive VR technology is still in its early stages, it has already made significant advancements in the gaming industry. 

Applications of Virtual Reality 

● Training: VR provides an active experience during training, offering more than just passive information absorption. It proves particularly beneficial in areas requiring high-risk or highly specialised skills, such as training firefighters, police officers, soldiers and surgeons. 

● Education: Students can grasp complex concepts, subjects or theories better. VR enhances memory retention, recall, hand-eye coordination and spatial awareness. For instance, a history teacher might use VR to illustrate life in ancient Greece or China. 

● Entertainment: VR has had a profound impact on the gaming industry, offering gamers a chance to navigate challenges in a virtual world alongside virtual characters. The film and television sectors are also exploring ways to provide viewers with immersive experiences. Virtual tourism enables people to virtually experience distant locations, going beyond mere pictures. 

● Healthcare and Medicine: VR enables doctors to practise various surgeries in a virtual space using haptic controllers with VR software guiding surgeons through necessary steps. VR can also be used to explain surgical procedures to patients. 

● Real Estate and Interiors: VR allows home buyers to virtually tour properties, architects to showcase detailed 3D plans and homeowners to preview remodelled homes. This offers an accurate feel for scale, depth and spatial awareness. 

● Engineering: VR engineering involves using 3D modelling tools and visualisation techniques during the design phase. Engineers can view projects in 3D, gaining better understanding and identifying potential risks before implementation. This also provides a safe environment for design adjustments. 

COMBATING POLLUTION

Space debris

Space above Earth is turning progressively crowded. Space debris, or orbital debris, refers to the accumulation of non-operational items around Earth’s orbit, including old satellites, rocket stages that no longer operate, and pieces from collisions or explosions. As the number of space constellations and exploration grows at a never-before-seen rate, one question becomes important about space junk: This debris itself poses a great degree of danger to operational satellites, space missions, and other future exploratory undertakings. In these respects, battling orbital pollution is actually of the essence in order to guarantee that space operations are sustained appropriately for future generations.

Space debris refers to any human-made object that is no longer serving its functional purpose but still in Earth’s orbit. The sizes vary from tiny paint flecks to large and derelict satellites. The majority of the debris is housed in what is termed the Low Earth Orbit, which extends up to 2,000 kilometers above Earth’s surface. It is, particularly, pretty congested, as it is where most of the satellite operations take place: communication, Earth observation, and scientific research, among others. Some of the reasons why such buildups of space debris occur include the following: failed spacecraft, spent rocket stages, and fragments from explosions or collisions. The first significant awareness of the problem was the collision between the defunct Russian satellite Kosmos-2251 and an operational Iridium communications satellite back in 2009, adding several thousand fragments of debris into LEO. Since that accident happened, things have only gotten worse due to the increased number of launches.

Space debris poses a number of different risks to current and future space operations. Active satellites, space stations, and manned missions face the risk of being hit by debris with velocity mostly exceeding the speed of 28,000 kilometers per hour. In such great speed, even small fragments may cause serious damage: a paint chip is able to puncture the surface of a spacecraft, and collision with a big piece can destroy the whole satellite, thus contributing to the problem of debris. The Kessler Syndrome (1978), theorized by NASA scientist Donald Kessler, is an exponential growth cascade where space debris collides with satellites and other debris, creating fragments that collide further until possibly rendering parts of space unusable for decades or longer. Not yet collective, the Kessler Syndrome is a reason for concern due to the growing density of objects in LEO, which should be met with proactive measures.

Recently, the efforts to reduce space debris have been gaining momentum. Most of the efforts now go toward prevention rather than removal of debris. International guidelines such as those by UNOOSA and IADC, for instance, recommend designing satellites in such a way that they can deorbit no longer than 25 years after the end of their mission. This is often done by lowering their orbits so their re-entry into the atmosphere causes them to burn up. 

In addition, satellite operators are also summoned to carry out end-of-life maneuvers that safely remove those spacecraft from operational orbits. For geostationary satellites, that normally includes separation in a “graveyard orbit,” a place far away from the critical orbital zones where those defunct satellites can stay in without interfering with operational spacecraft.

While prevention is paramount, guidelines and best practices alone cannot solve the issue of the already existing debris.

KING OF THE PLANETS

 Jupiter 

Large enough to fit every other planet inside, it’s no surprise Jupiter holds the title of “King of the planets”.

Last year the European Space Agency sent the Jupiter Icy Moons Explorer (JUICE for short) on the long journey towards the planet, and this October NASA will launch the Europa Clipper to join it on its way. The trip will take five and a half years, because Jupiter lies around 484 million miles from the Sun – five times further away than Earth.

With its century-long storms, deadly radiation and a glittering assortment of moons, the solar system’s largest planet is a fascinating – and deadly – place to visit.

A giant gassy ball: Jupiter is around 86,881 miles wide and it contains more than twice as much mass as every other planet put together. The more material a planet has, the stronger its gravity. So, if you stood on a set of scales on Jupiter you would be nearly two and a half times heavier than you are on Earth. You wouldn’t be any bigger – the planet is just pulling down on you more.

You’d have a tough time standing anywhere on Jupiter though, because it’s a gas giant. The solar system’s inner planets – Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars – are mostly made of rock, but Jupiter is entirely made of its atmosphere.

The planet is about 90% hydrogen gas, the lightest known element in the universe. Most of the remaining 10% is helium, the gas used to fill balloons so they float. There are also trace amounts of other chemicals, such as water and ammonia (which is used on Earth to make plant fertilisers), which form Jupiter’s clouds.

Jupiter’s outer atmosphere is about 30 miles thick. Below this, there is a layer of hydrogen and helium 13,000 miles thick, which changes from gas to liquid as the depth and pressure increase. Under this lies a deep sea – 25,000 miles deep – of liquid metallic hydrogen.

Scientists don’t yet know if a solid surface exists on Jupiter, but if there is one, you wouldn’t be able to walk on it.

Stormy weather: If you looked at Jupiter through a large enough telescope, you’d see the planet has alternating brown and white stripes running from side to side. These are bands of swirling clouds, moving around the planet in opposite directions. The cream coloured stripes are known as “zones”, while the darker ones are called “belts”.

The belts and zones are created because Jupiter spins incredibly quickly. Pinning down exactly how long the gas giant takes to rotate – and the length of its day – is surprisingly complicated. Because it isn’t solid, different parts of the planet rotate at different speeds. While the equator zips around in just nine hours and 50 minutes, material at the poles takes six minutes longer to catch up. This rapid spinning creates strong currents in the atmosphere, which help create the planet’s distinctive belts and zones.

Dotted among these stripes are bright spots that are white or red. These are immense storms, which can last from a few days to decades. The biggest of them is called the Great Red Spot, and it has been a permanent fixture on the face of Jupiter for over 190 years.

Today, the Spot is 8,700 miles across, wide enough to swallow Earth whole. Violent winds roar at 425 miles per hour, more than double a Category 5 hurricane. The fastest winds, though, are at the poles, where storms whip gusts at over 900 miles per hour.

Jupiter’s most dangerous feature (to spacecraft, at least) is its magnetic field. Around 20,000 times stronger than Earth’s, the field traps charged particles and accelerates them towards the planet. When they strike the atmosphere they make it glow, creating beautiful aurorae (northern and southern lights), that ring the poles like a crown.

Visiting Jupiter: 

The trapped particles also create deadly radiation around the planet. The first spacecraft to visit Jupiter in the 1970s – Pioneer 10 and Pioneer 11 – avoided this by blazing past the planet at 78,000 miles per hour. They found the radiation was 100 times stronger than expected, and it fried several onboard instruments. The next visitors – Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 – in 1979, fared much better. They took 33,000 pictures of Jupiter and its moons, found the planet had a thin ring around its waist like Saturn, and also spotted a volcano erupting on one of Jupiter’s moons, Io.

Other spacecraft have passed the planet on their journeys elsewhere, such as New Horizons on its way to Pluto. Only two have stayed longer, surviving the radiation by spending most of their time at a safe distance from Jupiter and occasionally swinging in for a short visit.

The Galileo spacecraft orbited Jupiter from 1995 to 2003. It spotted bright flashes that turned out to be lightning strikes leaping between the clouds. It even dropped off a probe that fell through the planet’s atmosphere for 58 minutes before it was crushed by the intense pressure. Juno arrived in 2016 and is still watching over the mighty gas giant today. The spacecraft has been mapping out the strength of size of States.

Jupiter’s gravity and magnetic field, hoping to reveal more about what the planet looks like underneath the clouds. It also found evidence of helium rain falling through the layers deep in the atmosphere, where the pressure is so high that hydrogen and helium act like liquids.

A new hope for alien life: When JUICE and Europa Clipper arrive at Jupiter in the 2030s, however, their main focus will be on Jupiter’s moons, rather than the planet itself. Jupiter has 95 moons (that we know of, as new ones are still being discovered), but both missions will focus their attention on three – Europa, Ganymede and Callisto. Mostly made of water ice, each moon is thought to hide a liquid water ocean beneath its surface. On Earth, wherever there’s water there’s life, so the icy moons are great places to look for life beyond Earth.

Neither JUICE nor Europa Clipper are directly searching for alien lifeforms, but they will be looking for signs that the moons could be habitable (possible to live there). In doing so, astrobiologists (scientists who study the origins of life in the universe) hope to understand more about how life might have begun on our own planet and elsewhere in the galaxy.

Jupiter may be the King of the Solar System, but its moons are set to shine in the coming years. Will alien life be finally found in our solar system, hiding on one of Jupiter’s many moons? Watch this space!

Europa Clipper - a journey to an ocean world: NASA's Europa Clipper is set to launch in October 2024 and arrive at Jupiter in April 2030. The spacecraft hopes to unlock some of the secrets of the planet's icy moon Europa and find out if it is capable of hosting alien life. Here are five mysteries the mission is seeking to solve:

1 Salty ocean

The key question scientists want to answer is whether Europa has an ocean of salty water hidden beneath its icy surface, and if so, how big it is. Europa Clipper will use radar to survey under the moon's surface.

2 Ingredients for life

Although scientists are almost certain that a vast ocean lies under Europa's surface, they want to know if it has other essential ingredients for life. The spacecraft will search for these, and investigate whether they come from Europa's icy shell or from the moon's rocky interior.

3 Plumes of water

Water jets have been seen shooting into space from Europa's surface. Europa Clipper will search for these and attempt to fly through one of them to give scientists a glimpse into the ocean beneath.

4 Smooth surface

Europa's surface is the smoothest object in the solar system, with no impact craters. The spacecraft will study the moon's surface to understand what is keeping it so fresh-faced, and whether volcanoes or Jupiter's gravity could provide the energy for life.

5 Landing site

Future missions to Europa might want to land on the surface to study its ocean. During its mission, Europa Clipper will aim to map the moon's surface in detail, allowing NASA to locate the best landing spot.

PRECIOUS METAL

Silver

Silver is found as crystals and usually occurs as massive or as thick wiry aggregates. Silver has been the most popular precious metal since ancient times. Silver mining is done only in a few countries like Mexico, Peru, Australia, China, Chile, Bolivia and Russia among others. It is used mainly as an Industrial byproduct in the world.

In medieval times, silver was more valuable than gold. It was the main metal used for money as coins, and for fine metal works. Today too, this precious metal is very expensive and is used as bullion, for investment, in jewellery and utensil making. 

Metallic silver is used for silver plating in electronic and photographic industry.

Odisha’s famous filigree work is based on silver. Silver is useful because like gold it is also soft and easy to work with and is difficult to destroy. It is popular for business investment and as social security because it’s easy to store in big chunks and can be sold easily in difficult financial situations.

Now it has been scientifically proven by some doctors that silver is good for health too; something our forefathers always believed in and that is why eating and drinking in silver utensils was encouraged. A book entitled “The Most Precious Metal” by Dr. Gordon Pedersen, Medical Director of the Silver Health Institute, and co-authored by Dr. Bryan Frank, has almost surprised everyone in the Western world as they describe in 90 pages how silver helps to fight germs and is good for health. Silver is ingrained in the psyche of Indians with the precious metal being used in religious ceremonies, festivals, weddings and many other cultural events. 

Even the name of the Indian currency ‘Rupee’ is derived from the Sanskrit word for silver, which is ‘Rupya’. 

In India, foods can be found decorated with a thin layer of silver, known as ‘Varak.’ 

Silver in India is valued next only to gold for making ornaments due to its softness and attractive white colour. It had been an important currency metal in several parts of the world. It is also used in the manufacture of chemicals, electroplating, photography and for colouring glass, etc.

It is found mixed with several other metals such as copper, lead, gold, zinc, etc. India is not a major producer of silver. Our major production comes from Zawar mines in Udaipur district of Rajasthan. Here, silver is obtained as a by-product during the concentration and smelting of galena ore in Hindustan Zinc Smelter. The silver content varies from 171.4 gm to 774.5 gm per tonne of zinc and lead concentrates respectively.

The Tundoo Lead Smelter in Dhanbad district of Jharkhand is another important producer of silver as a by-product of lead. Some silver is produced by Kolar Gold Fields and Hutti gold mines in Karnataka during refining of gold. The Hindustan Copper Ltd. at Maubhandar smelter in Singhbhum district of Jharkhand obtains silver from copper slimes. Silver is also produced by Vizag Zinc smelter in Andhra Pradesh from the lead concentrates. Traces of silver also occur in Hazaribag, Palamu, Ranchi and Singhbhum districts of Jharkhand; Cuddapah, Guntur and Kumool districts of Andhra Pradesh; Vadodara in Gujarat, Bellary district of Karnataka, Baramula.