Global Positioning System

GPS

What is GPS?

The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a satellite-based navigation system that allows users to determine their precise location anywhere on Earth. It is operated by the United States Department of Defense but is available for civilian use worldwide.

How Does GPS Work?

GPS works using a network of at least 24 satellites orbiting the Earth. These satellites continuously transmit signals, which GPS receivers (like those in smartphones, cars, and smartwatches) use to calculate location.

Steps in GPS Functioning:

1. Signal Transmission: GPS satellites send signals containing the satellite’s location and the exact time the signal was transmitted.

2. Signal Reception: A GPS receiver (in a phone, car, etc.) picks up signals from at least four satellites.

3. Distance Calculation: The receiver calculates the time it took for each signal to arrive and determines its distance from each satellite.

4. Triangulation (or Trilateration): Using distances from multiple satellites, the receiver determines its exact position (latitude, longitude, and altitude).

Components of GPS: GPS consists of three major components:

1. Space Segment – The satellites in orbit.

2. Control Segment – Ground stations that monitor and control satellites.

3. User Segment – GPS receivers used by people and devices.

Applications of GPS:

Navigation: Used in Google Maps, car navigation systems, and aviation.

Tracking: Used to track vehicles, pets, and shipments.

Surveying and Mapping: Helps in land surveys and geographic mapping.

Military Use: Used for guiding missiles, troop movements, and reconnaissance.

Disaster Management: Helps locate people in emergency situations.

Agriculture: Used in precision farming for better crop management.

Accuracy of GPS: GPS accuracy depends on various factors like signal blockage (tall buildings, mountains), atmospheric interference, and satellite positioning.

Standard GPS (Civilian Use): Accuracy of 3-10 meters.

Military and Special GPS (With Augmentations): Can be accurate up to centimeters.

Other Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS): While GPS is the most well-known, other countries have their own satellite navigation systems:

GLONASS (Russia)

Galileo (European Union)

BeiDou (China)

NavIC (India)

Picture within a picture

DROSTE EFFECT 

Take a close look at this picture. The woman is holding a tray with a cup of hot chocolate and a packet of cocoa, which shows her own picture holding the same items! This creates a ‘picture within a picture’ effect.

In 1904, a newly launched cocoa tin gained a lot of attention. It featured a nurse holding a tray with the same cocoa tin and a cup of hot chocolate. If you looked closely or used a magnifying glass, the “second” picture on the tin also showed the same image. This repeating picture fascinated consumers, and the cocoa tin, made by Droste, a Dutch chocolate manufacturer, became an instant hit. This technique of repeating images within smaller insets is now known as the Droste effect.

The Droste effect is a visual form of recursion. Recursion is when something repeats itself over and over again. It is a concept used in a variety of disciplines, ranging from mathematics and computer science to art.

The Droste effect was earlier known as mise en abyme, French for ‘placed in the abyss’. It meant an infinite reproduction of an image, as when one stands between two mirrors. Renowned Dutch graphic artist M C Escher used it in many of his works, such as Print Gallery and Drawing Hands.

At one time, the Droste effect was popular in product packaging. Even today, it can be seen in some products. The Laughing Cow cheese brand for instance, has a picture of a cow wearing earrings. When seen closely, the earrings are images of the package, each with the picture of the cow!

Did the Droste effect inspire the creation of the Matryoshka doll? Not really. The Matryoshka doll developed independently in 19th-century Russia. It consists of a set of wooden dolls nesting one inside the other, with each smaller doll resembling the larger one. The Droste effect is more of a visual design concept while the Matryoshka doll is a physical object.

A World of Fun

 CARTOONS 

Cartoons are a fantastic way to tell stories through visuals, and it’s amazing to see how different cultures bring their own unique animation styles to life! Take Japan, for example, known for its anime style, which is filled with vibrant colours and intricate details that make characters feel like they’re truly alive. Shows like Naruto and One Piece are popular worldwide for their thrilling adventures, magical moments, and deep friendships from touching romances to epic battles.

In the United States, the approach is often more exaggerated and whimsical. Cartoons like The Simpsons and Sponge Bob Square Pants find humour in everyday life, with simple character designs, but their adventures are just as exciting and funny. And, of course, we can’t forget the iconic Disney cartoons and movies, which have captured hearts all over the world.

Europe also brings something special to the table with their animation styles. French cartoons, for instance, often have a beautifully artistic, charming feel. Miraculous: Tales of Ladybug & Cat Noir is just one example, blending stunning visuals with captivating storytelling. Countries like Germany and the UK also create unique animations, with a perfect mix of art and narrative that appeals to audiences of all ages.

And it’s not just these regions- South Korea, India, China, Canada, and Australia and manymore countries all have their own distinctive styles. In the end, what makes cartoons so magical is not just how they look, but the stories they tell. Which cartoon’s storyline is your choice?

Popular packaging material

BUBBLE WRAP 

Bubble Wrap was invented in 1957 by engineers Alfred W. Fielding and Marc Chavannes. Interestingly, it was originally intended to be a textured wallpaper. The two inventors sealed two shower curtains together, trapping air bubbles inside, but the idea didn’t catch on as wallpaper.

Evolution of Bubble Wrap:

1. Failed Wallpaper Idea (1957) – Fielding and Chavannes tried marketing it as a new type of wallpaper, but it didn’t sell well.

2. Greenhouse Insulation (Late 1950s) – They attempted to use it as insulation for greenhouses, but it wasn’t widely adopted.

3. Protective Packaging (1960) – IBM changed everything when they needed a way to safely ship their new 1401 computer. They adopted Bubble Wrap as protective packaging, and its real purpose was born.

4. Sealed Air Corporation (1960) – The inventors founded Sealed Air Corporation, which became a leader in protective packaging.

How Bubble Wrap is Made: Bubble Wrap is made from polyethylene plastic, which starts as small resin pellets. These pellets are melted down, formed into a thin film, and then air is trapped between two layers to create the bubbles. The size and thickness of the bubbles vary depending on the type of Bubble Wrap needed.

Types of Bubble Wrap

1. Standard Bubble Wrap – Small bubbles for general protection.

2. Large Bubble Wrap – Bigger bubbles for cushioning fragile items.

3. Anti-Static Bubble Wrap – Designed for electronics to prevent static electricity.

4. Self-Adhesive Bubble Wrap – Sticks to surfaces without tape.

5. Biodegradable Bubble Wrap – More eco-friendly and decomposes faster than traditional plastic.

Uses of Bubble Wrap

Packaging – Protects fragile items during shipping.

Insulation – Helps retain heat in windows or greenhouses.

Stress Relief – Popping the bubbles is fun and therapeutic!

Arts and Crafts – Used in paintings, decorations, and even costumes.

Medical Use – Can provide cushioning for injured areas or act as padding for medical shipments.

Interesting Facts

● Bubble Wrap was almost called "Air Cap".

●There’s an official Bubble Wrap Appreciation Day, celebrated on the last Monday of January.

●A non-poppable version was introduced in 2015 to reduce shipping bulk.

●Despite its original failure as wallpaper, Bubble Wrap became one of the most popular and satisfying packaging materials worldwide!

●The largest sheet of Bubble Wrap recorded was 8,891 square feet (set in 2015).

● NASA uses Bubble Wrap to insulate equipment in space.

●Over 240,000 miles of Bubble Wrap are produced every year—enough to wrap around the Earth 10 times!

Brand that made mobile phones popular by connecting people

NOKIA 

Nokia is the brand that played a pivotal role in making mobile phones popular by connecting people. In the late 1990s and early 2000s, Nokia became the leading mobile phone manufacturer, making significant strides in revolutionising personal communication. With its user-friendly interface, durable design, and long-lasting battery life, Nokia's mobile phones became a household staple globally. 

Their iconic slogan, "Connecting People", perfectly captured the essence of what mobile phones were becoming: tools for individuals to stay in touch with loved ones, business contacts, and the world at large. 

Nokia's commitment to accessibility and communication made mobile phones essential for everyday life. Their innovations in features like text messaging, mobile gaming, and mobile internet paved the way for the evolution of smartphones. 

Nokia’s impact on mobile communication is undeniable. It wasn’t just about making phones; it was about shaping how people interacted with technology. Their sturdy designs, legendary battery life, and innovations like Snake (one of the earliest mobile games) made them iconic.

Even though Nokia couldn’t keep up with the smartphone revolution, their influence lingers—many still fondly remember models like the 3310 or 1100, known for their near-indestructibility. And now, with some modern Nokia-branded smartphones, they’re still trying to make a comeback.

Although Nokia eventually lost its dominant position with the rise of touchscreen smartphones, it remains remembered for making mobile phones a ubiquitous part of modern society.

A Rocket-Fueled Milestone

ISRO's 1OOth LAUNCH 

India's space agency, the Indian Space Research Organisation (“ISRO"), just celebrated a super cool achievement: they've launched their 100th mission! That's like hitting a century in cricket – a huge milestone! It's a proud moment for India and a giant leap for its space journey! That's the Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle, and it carried a very special passenger : the NVS-02 navigation satellite. Think of it as a high-tech messenger, sent to help us find our way around! This rocket was launched from the Satish Dhawan Space Centre in Andhra Pradesh. This 100th launch is a big deal. It shows how far India has come in space exploration. ISRO has been working hard for years, sending rockets and satellites into space to learn more about our universe and help us here on Earth. ISRO shared the exciting news on social media, saying it's a “proud milestone for India's space journey". ISRO is also planning more missions, more discoveries, and more incredible journeys into space. They're reaching for the stars, and taking India with them!

The story behind the popular game of numbers

SUDOKU, FUN WITH NUMBERS 

When you open the puzzles page in a newspaper, have you ever wondered about those blank grids with a few scattered numbers? They're Sudoku puzzles - a global craze!

In this game, you fill in the grid with singular, unique numbers. That’s where the name comes from: su means number and doku means single. Though the name is Japanese, the puzzle was actually created by American architect Howard Garns in 1979. He called it Number Place, but it didn't gain much popularity in the US. Japanese publishers discovered it in the 1980s, renamed it Sudoku, and by 1984, it was a sensation in Japan. 

Twenty years later, Hong Kong judge Wayne Gould came across Sudoku during a visit to Tokyo. He introduced it to The Times in London in 2004, sparkling a worldwide craze. By 2005, newspapers across Europe, India, and beyond had embraced Sudoku, and the puzzle's popularity has only grown since. 

Sudoku is simple but addictive. A classic puzzle features a grid of 9 large boxes, each divided into a 3X3 grid. Your task is to fill in the empty cells so that:

1. Each horizontal row contains the numbers 1 to 9 without repetition. 

2. Each vertical column contains the numbers 1 to 9 without repetition. 

3. Each 3X3 box contains the numbers 1 to 9 without repetition. 

It's not about Math - just logic and patience. With practice, you'll get better at spotting patterns and solving puzzles step by step. 

The fun doesn't stop there! You can swap numbers for letters, symbols or pictures and still follow the same rules. Modern variants, like jigsaw Sudoku or the tricky killer Sudoku, make it more exciting. 

Remember, every Sudoku puzzle is a test of logic, persistence and problem-solving. Ready to give it a try?

Converting power into motion

ENGINES 

Watt Steam Engine 

Engines are machines that are used to change any form of energy into mechanical energy. Mechanical energy is the energy that moves an object. The different types of energy sources are potential energy, heat energy, electrical energy, chemical energy and nuclear energy. 

Steam Engine 

Steam Engines: The first steam engines were developed by Thomas Newcomen in 1731. They were the 'atmospheric' design, which means that atmospheric pressure at the top of the piston pushed it down, lifting the work object. During the Industrial Revolution, the Watt steam engine was developed sporadically from 1763 to 1775 by James Watt and Matthew Boulton. It was the first steam engine to use steam at a pressure just above atmospheric pressure to move the piston. This enabled the development of semi-automated factories in places where waterpower was not available. Development later also led to steam locomotives and the expansion of railway transportation. 

Industrial Steam Engine

Electric Motors: Electric Motors convert electrical energy into mechanical energy. These motors work through the interaction between the motor's magnetic field and electric current in a wire to generate force, which is applied on the motor. They are used in Industrial fans, blowers, pumps, vehicles and household appliances. 

Autoutomobile engine 

Automobiles: Karl Benz developed the first commercially successful automobile. His Benz Patent Motorcar in 1885 is considered the first practical automobile and the first car put into serious production. This automobile had wire wheels with a four-stroke engine of his own design, a very advanced coil ignition and an evaporative cooling system. In 1896, Benz was granted a patent for his design of the first flat engine with horizontally opposing pistons. The pistons moved in horizontal cylinders and reached the top centre simultaneously balancing each other with respect to momentum. This design was used in the Volkswagen Beetle, Citroën 2CV cars, some Porsche cars and Subaru cars.

External Combustion Engine: An external combustion engine is a type of heat engine where the internal working fluid is heated by combustion of an external source through a wall or heat exchanger. The fluid expands and acts on the mechanism of the engine to produce motion and usable work. The fluid is then cooled, compressed and reused or dumped. 

Internal Combustion Engines: Internal Combustion Engines are a type of heat engine where the combustion of fuel occurs with an oxidiser like air in a combustion chamber. This type of engine is used in vehicles. In such engines, fuel, which is a form of chemical energy, is burned. This generates heat, which causes the gases to expand and push down on the pistons in the engine, doing work. The first commercially successful internal combustion engine was created by Etienne Lenoir in 1860 and the first modern internal combustion engine was developed by Nicolaus Otto in 1876.

There are many types of internal combustion engines. They can be grouped in terms of fuel, cycle and configuration. They are typically powered by fossil fuels like natural gas or petroleum derivatives like gasoline, diesel or fuel oil. 

There are three different types of cycles. 

● Two-stroke engines produce power once for every turn of the engine. 

● Four-stroke engine cylinders produce power once for every two turns of the engine. 

● Six-stroke engine cylinders produce power once for every six turns of the engine. 

Cylinders are made of pistons and crankshaft. Any number of cylinders can be used and arranged in many configurations like a straight line, at an angle or in a circle. 

Engines in India: Cooper Corporation was the first company to manufacture diesel engines in India. Some of the best engines made in India include the Nissan 1.3-litre Turbo-Petrol, Mahindra's 1.2-litre Turbo-Petrol (mStallion) and Mahindra's 1.5-litre Turbo-Diesel. 

The magnetic marvel

FERROFLUID 

In the realm of cool and mind-bending science, there’s a substance that’s capturing the imagination of scientists and enthusiasts alike --- ferrofluid. It sounds like something out of a sci-fi movie, but this magnetic marvel is very real and has some amazing properties that make it a star in the world of material science. 

What is ferrofluid?

Ferrofluid is a special liquid that behaves in a way that seems almost magical. It’s made up of tiny magnetic particles --- usually iron compounds that are super tiny, just 10 nanometres in size --- mixed in a carrier fluid, often oil. What's really cool about ferrofluid is that it can respond to magnetic fields without clumping together. 

Unlike regular magnets, ferrofluid isn’t magnetic on its own. It becomes magnetized only when exposed to a magnetic field, transforming itself from a smooth liquid to a spiky, hedgehog-like form. When you bring a magnet close to ferrofluid, it comes to life, forming dynamic, spiky shapes that seem to dance to an invisible magnetic tune. 

The magic of ferrofluid lies in the balance between magnetism and liquid properties. The tiny iron particles are so small that they remain suspended in the liquid, thanks to Brownian motion, which is the random movement of particles in a fluid. When a magnet is brought near, these tiny magnets align with the magnetic field, creating those mesmerising spikes and patterns. 

Ferrofluid isn’t just for fancy science experiments. It actually has some practical uses in different industries:

● It is used in speakers to cool down the voice coils and prevent overheating, ensuring they don't overheat during use.

● Researchers have even built speakers filled with ferrofluid that generates sound by vibrating the particles with electromagnetic coils. This allows for unique sound effects and spatial audio experiences. 

● It finds applications in creating leak-proof seals for machinery that adjusts based on the magnetic field. This prevents dust and debris from entering delicate machinery. 

● NASA explored using ferrofluid to control fuel movement in spacecraft during microgravity conditions, though this application hasn't yet reached space. 

● There’s ongoing research for using ferrofluid in targeted drug delivery to specific areas in the body to improve treatment accuracy and minimise side effects. 

● Ferrofluids can also be found in hard drives. 

● Besides its scientific uses, ferrofluid has become a star in art and entertainment. Artists use it to craft mesmerising sculpture and interactive displays that respond to magnets. You can find ferrofluid displays in science museums, art installations and even in certain electronic gadgets. 

In the end, ferrofluid shows how science can blend with creativity. While you might not be working with ferrofluid in everyday classes, who knows  --- maybe one day you'll find yourself creating the next generation of ferrofluid art or contributing to its innovative applications. The world of science is full of surprises, and ferrofluid is a shining example of how fascinating it can be!

India’s weather tracker

INDIA METEOROLOGICAL DEPARTMENT (IMD)

On January 15, 2025, the India Meteorological Department (IMD) will turn 150 years old. 

The organisation was set up by the provincial British government in the country in 1875, and its first (Imperial) Meteorological Reporter was Henry Francis Blanford. The IMD’s genesis can be traced to the importance of the monsoons over South Asia and the formation effects of cyclones from the Indian Ocean. 

Its formation was particularly accelerated by the 1864 Calcutta cyclone, which devastated the city and left more than 60,000 people dead, and the Orissa famine that followed just two years later because the monsoons had failed. So the government at the time decided to funnel weather data collected around the country into a single set of records, managed by bespoke organisation. This organisation was the IMD. 

It was originally headquartered in Calcutta but by 1944 had moved to New Delhi. In independent India, the IMD became a member of the World Meteorological Organisation in 1949. 

The IMD currently operates six Regional Meteorological Centres, a Meteorological Centre in every State capital, plus a panoply of centres for various meteorological services. Aside from tracking and studying phenomena like rainfall and cyclones, the IMD helps record earth quakes and atmospheric pollution and generates alerts and warnings about impending anomalous weather. It also maintains a complicated communications system that collects data from a variety of sources, including ground observatories, naval vessels, atmospheric balloons and satellites. 

INDIAN MATHEMATICIAN

D. R. Kaprekar

Indian mathematician D. R. Kaprekar is best remembered for his discovery of the Kaprekar constant in 1976. The constant is the number 6174.

Take any four-digit number in which not all digits are alike. Arrange the digits in descending order and then reverse them to make a new number. Subtract the new number from the first number. If this process is repeated with the difference, eventually in about eight steps, the constant 6174 is arrived at.

Example: 4527

7542 - 2457 = 5085

8550 - 0558 = 7992

9972 - 2799 = 7173

7731 - 1377 = 6354

6543 - 3456 = 3087

8730 - 0378 = 8352

8532 - 2358 = 6174

7641 - 1467 = 6174

STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS

Dreams 

The human brain is a very complex organ that remains active even when we are asleep, and creates vivid experiences that we call 'dreams'. 

What are dreams? In simple words, dreams are a natural phenomenon that occurs during our sleep, primarily because of the Rapid Eye Movement (REM) stage. 

The mysterious occurances of dreams are studied from scientific and psychological perspectives, and it is believed that dreams occur because of various neurological, psychological and environmental factors. 

In 'The Interpretation of Dreams', a book published by Sigmund Freud in 1899, Freud introduces the theory of unconscious to dream Interpretation. According to the father of psychoanalysis, dreams are formed because of two mental processes. The first process involves unconscious forces that construct a wish and are expressed by a dream. The second process is a form of censorship that forcibly distorts the expression of wish. 

Freud viewed all dreams as forms of 'wish fulfilment', and he stated in his work, 'The Interpretation of Dreams', that "My presumption that dreams can be interpreted at once puts me in opposition to the ruling theory and in fact to every theory of dreams..."

He believed that dreams are the window to a person’s subconscious mind and they can reveal the individual’s unconscious desires, thoughts and motivations. 

Freud had his perspectives and ideas on the occurrence of dreams, but apart from these perspectives, there are various other theories on why people dream, and some of these ideas behind the occurrence of dreams are:

● Memory consolidation: Dreams help to consolidate memories, especially during REM sleep. The brain's activity while dreaming is similar to processing the memories whilst you are awake. 

● Increase in dopamine and acetylcholine levels: During REM sleep, the levels of dopamine and acetylcholine Increases, which leads to hallucinations. 

● Emotional processing: It is believed that dreams help you process and manage your emotions. That is why at times when you are stressed or anxious, you tend to have vivid dreams, and sometimes even nightmares. 

● Sorting through thoughts are feelings: This is another theory behind why dreams occur. It is often believed that dreams help you sort through your complicated thoughts and feelings. 

● Blocking of stimuli: Dreams can help the brain block the stimuli that can interfere with your memory and learning. 

How long does a dream last?

The longevity of dreams can vary. They can last for a few seconds or even for about 20-30 minutes. Sometimes people tend to remember their dreams when they are awakened during the REM phase. Some studies also reveal that an average person has about three to five dreams per night, and some may have even seven. But these dreams are often forgotten. 

A CLEANER AND GREENER TOMORROW

Electric Vehicles

Electric vehicles (EVs) are like magical cars that run on electricity instead of petrol or diesel. They are becoming increasingly popular in India and all around the world.

What are Electric Vehicles? Electric vehicles, also known as EVs, are a special kind of car. Instead of a traditional petrol or diesel engine, these cars use electricity to move. They have big batteries inside them, just like the one in your remote control car, but much bigger!

How Do They Work? EVs work fascinatingly. They have an electric motor that gets its power from the big battery. When you press the accelerator pedal, the electric motor starts turning the wheels, and the car moves. It’s like a silent and super-fast toy car.

Why Are EVs Important? EVs are essential for many reasons. First, they are much better for the environment. When regular cars use petrol or diesel, they produce harmful gases that make the air dirty and cause climate change. EVs, on the other hand, produce zero emissions because they run on clean electricity.

Cost-Efficient: Electric cars are also cost-efficient in the long run. Though they might be a bit more expensive, they save money because electricity is cheaper than petrol or diesel. Plus, you don’t need to change the oil, and EVs have fewer moving parts, so they don’t need as much maintenance.

Help Reduce Noise Pollution: EVs are incredibly quiet, making them great for cities. Traditional cars can be noisy, but with electric cars, you can enjoy a peaceful drive without the loud engine sounds.

Charging an EV: You need to charge an EV, just like charging your tablet or phone, to make it go. You can do this at home by plugging the car into a special socket or finding charging stations around the city. Some EVs can go a long way on a single charge, just like your toy car, lasting a long time with fresh batteries.

Electric Cars in India: Electric vehicles are catching on in India too! Many car companies are making electric cars, and you can see them on the roads. The Indian government also gives incentives and support to promote EVs to make our air cleaner.

So, electric vehicles are like the heroes of the car world, helping to fight air pollution and make the world a cleaner and greener place. They are not only cool but also kind to the planet. 

WORLD’S FIRST X-RAY

Hand of Rontgen's wife

In 1895, Wilhelm Conrad Rontgen, professor of physics, University of Wurburg in Germany, was doing experiments with electrical discharges in evacuated glass tubes. 

Late in 1895, Wilhelm Rontegen was alone at night doing his experiments, this time in the dark and noticed a glow was produced on the wall, which he knew was not caused by fluorescence or visible light. He named these new, unidentified rays 'X' or if you prefer; X-rays. 

After several months of playing with his discovery he noticed that the objects placed in the path of rays cast shadows and created images on the wall. Soon after, he used a photographic plate and had his wife, Frau Rontgen, place her hand in the path of the X-rays, creating the world’s first X-ray picture. 

In 1901, Wilhelm Rontgen was awarded the very first Nobel Prize for this discovery. 

MATHEMATICIAN

Pythagoras

One of the most famous names in the history of mathematics is Pythagoras. He is recognised as the first true mathematician. Pythagoras made influential contributions to philosophy and religion in the late 6th century BC. He is often revered as a great mathematician, mystic and scientist and is best known for the Pythagorean Theorem which bears his name.

Early Life: He was born on the Greek Island – Samos in the eastern Aegean. His birth date is estimated to be somewhere in 570 BC. His father was a merchant and travelled a lot for business. Pythagoras also accompanied his father in various expeditions.

Inspiration: When Pythagoras was 18, he met Thales - the first known Greek philosopher and scientist. It was this meeting which triggered his interest in the science of mathematics and astronomy. Thales advised him to travel to Egypt and explore these avenues. Pythagoras spent years in Egypt in search of all available knowledge and received wisdom from an Egyptian priest Oenuphis of Heliopolis.

Mathematikoi: In around 530 BC, Pythagoras settled in Croton- Italy, where he founded a philosophical and religious school that instantly attracted many followers. He established and headed a society called Mathematikoi. The members of his society lived permanently together and followed strict rules. Pythagoras taught all the members of the society personally.

Pythagorean Theorem: Pythagoras has commonly been credited for discovering the Pythagorean Theorem of geometry. It is widely believed that Pythagoras or his students were the first to construct its proof. Pythagoras believed that numbers had personalities like perfect or incomplete, masculine or feminine, beautiful or ugly. He also studied properties of numbers which would be familiar to mathematicians today like even and odd numbers.

Later years: Pythagoras desired to stay out of politics, yet his society was always affected by politics. In 510 BC Croton attacked and defeated its neighbour Sybaris and there are certainly some suggestions that Pythagoras became involved in the dispute. Then in around 508 BC the Pythagorean Society at Croton was attacked by Cylon, a noble from Croton itself. Pythagoras escaped to Metapontium and the most authors say he died there. His society expended rapidly after 500 BC and its contributions to mathematics are still recognised and respected.

TECHNOLOGY USED FOR FACE RECOGNITION

Facial Recognition Technology

Facial recognition Technology is a cutting-edge innovation that identifies and verifies individuals based on their unique facial features. 

Some smartphones use facial recognition technology to recognise a face and unlock the phone. Here, the technology simply identifies and recognises a person as the sole owner of the device, thus limiting access to others. Beyond unlocking phones, facial recognition is used in other places too, to identify people in photos, videos or in real time. It is a technology that compares a picture of a person’s face to a bunch of other faces stored in a computer in order to identify or confirm an individual’s identity. 

The biometric software used in facial recognition technology uses mathematics to understand and remember how a person’s face looks and stores it as a faceprint. Deep learning algorithms are used to compare a live capture or digital image to the stored faceprint. 

How it works 

● Step 1: Face detection 

The camera looks at a picture of a face. This can be just one face or a bunch of faces in a group. 

● Step 2: Face analysis 

Next, the camera closely examines the face and studies it. It pays attention to things like how far apart the eyes are, how deep the eyes are set, how long the face is from the top of the forehead to the bottom of the chin and the unique shapes of the cheeks, lips, ears and chin. These are the particular points that make each face different. 

● Step 3: Converting the face into numbers 

The camera changes the face picture into a code made of numbers. It’s like turning your face into mathematical formula. This code is called a faceprint. Just like your fingerprint, your faceprint is also unique. 

● Step 4: Finding a match 

Now, when the faceprint is compared to a bunch of other faceprints stored in a computer, it is looking for a matching puzzle piece. If the faceprint matches the one in the computer, the computer would have found the face it belongs to. 

How is it used 

● Unlocking phones: New mobile phones now use facial recognition to unlock the device. This helps protect personal information and keeps sensitive data safe, especially if the phone gets stolen. 

● Law enforcement: Facial recognition is used to identify people quickly and accurately. This is particularly useful in urgent situations when the police need to find someone dangerous or a person involved in a crime. Officers can also use their smartphones or other portable devices to take pictures of people and compare them instantly to a database of known faces to identify wanted individuals. 

● Airports: Facial recognition is being used at security points within airports to make sure travellers are who they say they are. For example, in Indian airports, Digi Yatra is being used to allow travellers to move through airport checkpoints without using physical documents. Instead, they can use their face to prove their identity, which is linked to their boarding pass. 

● Finding missing persons: Facial recognition can also be used to find missing persons. When reported, the missing person’s photo is added to a database. If their face is recognised at places where cameras are placed, such as airports, roads or railway stations, law enforcement can be notified, making it easier to find them. 

It's important to note that while facial recognition can be very useful, there are also concerns about privacy, security and potential misuse of technology. We need to make sure we take the maximum advantage of it while also making it less risky. 

Did you know?

Automated facial recognition was pioneered in the 1960s by Woody Bledsoe, Helen Chan Wolf and Charles Bisson, whose work focused on teaching computers to recognise human faces. 

AQUATIC ENGINEERING

Lessons from fish

Have you ever wondered what boats and fish have in common? You might think they’re completely different, but here’s a fun fact: some of the fastest and most efficient boats are designed to mimic the shapes of fish! Yes, that's right - engineers and scientists study fish to make boats better. But how does that work? Let's find out! 

Fish are incredible swimmers. They’ve been perfecting their moves for millions of years, and each species has unique adaptations that help it glide through the water effortlessly. Scientists noticed that the shape of a fish's body plays a huge role in how it moves. Some fish have sleek, streamlined bodies, perfect for speed, while others have broader bodies for stability and maneuverability. 

Take the tuna, for example. Tuna-fish are built for speed, with a streamlined, torpedo-shaped body that cuts through water with minimal resistance. By designing boat hulls that mimic this shape, engineers create boats that can move faster and use less fuel. 

Dolphins, although not fish, are also inspiring. Their smooth, curved bodies and flexible spines allow them to leap and swim with grace and speed. Boats designed with dolphin-like curves can glide over waves more smoothly, making for a faster and more comfortable ride. 

Engineers are constantly experimenting with new designs, taking inspiration from various sea creatures. Imagine a submarine that moves like a squid or a speedboat that mimics the agile movements of a marlin. The possibilities are endless and exciting! 

So, why is this important? By designing boats that move more efficiently through the water, we can save fuel, reduce pollution, and explore our oceans more effectively. Plus, it’s a great example of how we can learn from nature to make our world better. 

Next time you’re by the water, take a moment to watch the fish. Think about how they move and what makes them special. Who knows? You might come up with the next big idea for boat design! 

Remember, the world is full of amazing connections just waiting to be discovered. 

DISPLAY OF LIGHT WITH SOUND

Firecrackers and Fireworks

Explosive firecrackers and brilliant fireworks are the hallmarks of the joyous Diwali festival.

Be it the sparkling phooljhari, spinning chakra, fountainlike anaar, flying rocket or the Laxmi bomb — the dazzling fireworks captivate one and all during the days of the festival of lights.

Bursting firecrackers is an ancient practice that has its origins in China. It is said that a Chinese monk named Li Tian stuffed a green bamboo with gunpowder and threw it into a fire. The bamboo exploded suddenly and thus was born the firecracker. 

Firecrackers go off with a bang where as fireworks are a visual delight, setting the night skies ablaze with their splendour. Also called pyrotechnics, fireworks shows are not just about noise but also about light, smoke and colour.

The Recipe

A firecracker consists of gunpowder or flash powder wrapped very tightly in a paper tube, with a fuse. Gunpowder is a combustible mixture of potassium nitrate, charcoal and sulphur. These ingredients react with each other chemically to produce nitrogen and carbon dioxide gases when heat is applied by lighting the fuse. As the heated gases expand, the paper wrapping is ripped apart, producing the explosive sound. Flash powder burns quicker than gun powder and produces a loud bang with a flash of light.

Various types of fireworks produce different kinds of visual and sound effects depending on the chemicals stuffed in them. The most common component is aluminium, which emits silvery white sparks. Potassium imparts a violet shade while barium is used to create green colour. The pyrotechnic composition thus determines whether the firework emits a lot of smoke, glitters in a palm tree effect, whistles or crackles upon explosion.

Industrial Centre

Sivakasi is the fireworks capital of India with more than 600 manufacturers generating an annual turnover of Rs 7,000 crores. Dry climate and scanty rainfall as well as easy availability of raw materials make Sivakasi ideal for the fireworks industry. An impressed Jawaharlal Nehru nicknamed the industrial town ‘Kutty Japan’ (Mini Japan). However, Sivakasi was condemned for its use of child labour and today, steps have been taken to eradicate the practice.

The Darker Side

While fireworks continue to dazzle, they also create air, water and noise pollution apart from causing serious injuries. According to a 2016 study by the Pune-based Chest Research Foundation, burning a single cracker emits pollutants equal to the burning of 500 cigarettes at a time. The smoke contains traces of heavy metals and other toxic chemicals such as sulphur dioxide, magnesium and nitrates, which lead to health problems, especially respiratory ailments. Even the noise from the crackers— with decibel levels in excess of 90 — is harmful. Last year, the Supreme Court banned the sale of firecrackers in Delhi NCR. The smoke combined with the wintry mist leads to a spike in the levels of fine particulate matter with a diameter of 2.5 micrometres or less (PM 2.5) in the air. These particles, which are 30 times finer than human hair, accumulate in the internal organs and bloodstream, causing sickness.

People, especially children, burst firecrackers from very close quarters, about a foot away. So they directly inhale the smoke pollutants in large quantities. Of all the firecrackers, the snake tablet burns for less than 10 seconds but produces the highest levels of PM 2.5, followed by the ladi, phooljhari, chakri and anar.

Fast Facts

◆ At the stroke of midnight on 1 January 2016, wide eyed spectators witnessed the world’s largest display of 8,10,904 fireworks in the Philippine Arena, an indoor stadium in the Philippines. The show lastedfor an hour — a Guinness World Record!

◆ In May 2010, as many as 1,25,801 rockets were launched in 30 seconds in a record-making event in Cebu, Philippines.

◆ China is the largest manufacturer and exporter of fireworks in the world.