KING OF THE PLANETS

 Jupiter 

Large enough to fit every other planet inside, it’s no surprise Jupiter holds the title of “King of the planets”.

Last year the European Space Agency sent the Jupiter Icy Moons Explorer (JUICE for short) on the long journey towards the planet, and this October NASA will launch the Europa Clipper to join it on its way. The trip will take five and a half years, because Jupiter lies around 484 million miles from the Sun – five times further away than Earth.

With its century-long storms, deadly radiation and a glittering assortment of moons, the solar system’s largest planet is a fascinating – and deadly – place to visit.

A giant gassy ball: Jupiter is around 86,881 miles wide and it contains more than twice as much mass as every other planet put together. The more material a planet has, the stronger its gravity. So, if you stood on a set of scales on Jupiter you would be nearly two and a half times heavier than you are on Earth. You wouldn’t be any bigger – the planet is just pulling down on you more.

You’d have a tough time standing anywhere on Jupiter though, because it’s a gas giant. The solar system’s inner planets – Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars – are mostly made of rock, but Jupiter is entirely made of its atmosphere.

The planet is about 90% hydrogen gas, the lightest known element in the universe. Most of the remaining 10% is helium, the gas used to fill balloons so they float. There are also trace amounts of other chemicals, such as water and ammonia (which is used on Earth to make plant fertilisers), which form Jupiter’s clouds.

Jupiter’s outer atmosphere is about 30 miles thick. Below this, there is a layer of hydrogen and helium 13,000 miles thick, which changes from gas to liquid as the depth and pressure increase. Under this lies a deep sea – 25,000 miles deep – of liquid metallic hydrogen.

Scientists don’t yet know if a solid surface exists on Jupiter, but if there is one, you wouldn’t be able to walk on it.

Stormy weather: If you looked at Jupiter through a large enough telescope, you’d see the planet has alternating brown and white stripes running from side to side. These are bands of swirling clouds, moving around the planet in opposite directions. The cream coloured stripes are known as “zones”, while the darker ones are called “belts”.

The belts and zones are created because Jupiter spins incredibly quickly. Pinning down exactly how long the gas giant takes to rotate – and the length of its day – is surprisingly complicated. Because it isn’t solid, different parts of the planet rotate at different speeds. While the equator zips around in just nine hours and 50 minutes, material at the poles takes six minutes longer to catch up. This rapid spinning creates strong currents in the atmosphere, which help create the planet’s distinctive belts and zones.

Dotted among these stripes are bright spots that are white or red. These are immense storms, which can last from a few days to decades. The biggest of them is called the Great Red Spot, and it has been a permanent fixture on the face of Jupiter for over 190 years.

Today, the Spot is 8,700 miles across, wide enough to swallow Earth whole. Violent winds roar at 425 miles per hour, more than double a Category 5 hurricane. The fastest winds, though, are at the poles, where storms whip gusts at over 900 miles per hour.

Jupiter’s most dangerous feature (to spacecraft, at least) is its magnetic field. Around 20,000 times stronger than Earth’s, the field traps charged particles and accelerates them towards the planet. When they strike the atmosphere they make it glow, creating beautiful aurorae (northern and southern lights), that ring the poles like a crown.

Visiting Jupiter: 

The trapped particles also create deadly radiation around the planet. The first spacecraft to visit Jupiter in the 1970s – Pioneer 10 and Pioneer 11 – avoided this by blazing past the planet at 78,000 miles per hour. They found the radiation was 100 times stronger than expected, and it fried several onboard instruments. The next visitors – Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 – in 1979, fared much better. They took 33,000 pictures of Jupiter and its moons, found the planet had a thin ring around its waist like Saturn, and also spotted a volcano erupting on one of Jupiter’s moons, Io.

Other spacecraft have passed the planet on their journeys elsewhere, such as New Horizons on its way to Pluto. Only two have stayed longer, surviving the radiation by spending most of their time at a safe distance from Jupiter and occasionally swinging in for a short visit.

The Galileo spacecraft orbited Jupiter from 1995 to 2003. It spotted bright flashes that turned out to be lightning strikes leaping between the clouds. It even dropped off a probe that fell through the planet’s atmosphere for 58 minutes before it was crushed by the intense pressure. Juno arrived in 2016 and is still watching over the mighty gas giant today. The spacecraft has been mapping out the strength of size of States.

Jupiter’s gravity and magnetic field, hoping to reveal more about what the planet looks like underneath the clouds. It also found evidence of helium rain falling through the layers deep in the atmosphere, where the pressure is so high that hydrogen and helium act like liquids.

A new hope for alien life: When JUICE and Europa Clipper arrive at Jupiter in the 2030s, however, their main focus will be on Jupiter’s moons, rather than the planet itself. Jupiter has 95 moons (that we know of, as new ones are still being discovered), but both missions will focus their attention on three – Europa, Ganymede and Callisto. Mostly made of water ice, each moon is thought to hide a liquid water ocean beneath its surface. On Earth, wherever there’s water there’s life, so the icy moons are great places to look for life beyond Earth.

Neither JUICE nor Europa Clipper are directly searching for alien lifeforms, but they will be looking for signs that the moons could be habitable (possible to live there). In doing so, astrobiologists (scientists who study the origins of life in the universe) hope to understand more about how life might have begun on our own planet and elsewhere in the galaxy.

Jupiter may be the King of the Solar System, but its moons are set to shine in the coming years. Will alien life be finally found in our solar system, hiding on one of Jupiter’s many moons? Watch this space!

Europa Clipper - a journey to an ocean world: NASA's Europa Clipper is set to launch in October 2024 and arrive at Jupiter in April 2030. The spacecraft hopes to unlock some of the secrets of the planet's icy moon Europa and find out if it is capable of hosting alien life. Here are five mysteries the mission is seeking to solve:

1 Salty ocean

The key question scientists want to answer is whether Europa has an ocean of salty water hidden beneath its icy surface, and if so, how big it is. Europa Clipper will use radar to survey under the moon's surface.

2 Ingredients for life

Although scientists are almost certain that a vast ocean lies under Europa's surface, they want to know if it has other essential ingredients for life. The spacecraft will search for these, and investigate whether they come from Europa's icy shell or from the moon's rocky interior.

3 Plumes of water

Water jets have been seen shooting into space from Europa's surface. Europa Clipper will search for these and attempt to fly through one of them to give scientists a glimpse into the ocean beneath.

4 Smooth surface

Europa's surface is the smoothest object in the solar system, with no impact craters. The spacecraft will study the moon's surface to understand what is keeping it so fresh-faced, and whether volcanoes or Jupiter's gravity could provide the energy for life.

5 Landing site

Future missions to Europa might want to land on the surface to study its ocean. During its mission, Europa Clipper will aim to map the moon's surface in detail, allowing NASA to locate the best landing spot.

PRECIOUS METAL

Silver

Silver is found as crystals and usually occurs as massive or as thick wiry aggregates. Silver has been the most popular precious metal since ancient times. Silver mining is done only in a few countries like Mexico, Peru, Australia, China, Chile, Bolivia and Russia among others. It is used mainly as an Industrial byproduct in the world.

In medieval times, silver was more valuable than gold. It was the main metal used for money as coins, and for fine metal works. Today too, this precious metal is very expensive and is used as bullion, for investment, in jewellery and utensil making. 

Metallic silver is used for silver plating in electronic and photographic industry.

Odisha’s famous filigree work is based on silver. Silver is useful because like gold it is also soft and easy to work with and is difficult to destroy. It is popular for business investment and as social security because it’s easy to store in big chunks and can be sold easily in difficult financial situations.

Now it has been scientifically proven by some doctors that silver is good for health too; something our forefathers always believed in and that is why eating and drinking in silver utensils was encouraged. A book entitled “The Most Precious Metal” by Dr. Gordon Pedersen, Medical Director of the Silver Health Institute, and co-authored by Dr. Bryan Frank, has almost surprised everyone in the Western world as they describe in 90 pages how silver helps to fight germs and is good for health. Silver is ingrained in the psyche of Indians with the precious metal being used in religious ceremonies, festivals, weddings and many other cultural events. 

Even the name of the Indian currency ‘Rupee’ is derived from the Sanskrit word for silver, which is ‘Rupya’. 

In India, foods can be found decorated with a thin layer of silver, known as ‘Varak.’ 

Silver in India is valued next only to gold for making ornaments due to its softness and attractive white colour. It had been an important currency metal in several parts of the world. It is also used in the manufacture of chemicals, electroplating, photography and for colouring glass, etc.

It is found mixed with several other metals such as copper, lead, gold, zinc, etc. India is not a major producer of silver. Our major production comes from Zawar mines in Udaipur district of Rajasthan. Here, silver is obtained as a by-product during the concentration and smelting of galena ore in Hindustan Zinc Smelter. The silver content varies from 171.4 gm to 774.5 gm per tonne of zinc and lead concentrates respectively.

The Tundoo Lead Smelter in Dhanbad district of Jharkhand is another important producer of silver as a by-product of lead. Some silver is produced by Kolar Gold Fields and Hutti gold mines in Karnataka during refining of gold. The Hindustan Copper Ltd. at Maubhandar smelter in Singhbhum district of Jharkhand obtains silver from copper slimes. Silver is also produced by Vizag Zinc smelter in Andhra Pradesh from the lead concentrates. Traces of silver also occur in Hazaribag, Palamu, Ranchi and Singhbhum districts of Jharkhand; Cuddapah, Guntur and Kumool districts of Andhra Pradesh; Vadodara in Gujarat, Bellary district of Karnataka, Baramula.

HOW TIME HAS BEEN KEPT THROUGHOUT HISTORY

  From sundials to atomic clocks

The world has come from keeping time with the sun and the moon to atoms and their nuclei. Some physicist have even started work on the next-to-next generation of devices, called nuclear clocks. 

Time is an inalienable part of our reality. Scientists don’t understand it fully at the universe’s largest and smallest scales, but fortunately for humans, a panoply of natural philosophers and inventors have allowed us to keep step with its inexorable march — with clocks.

What is a clock?

Clocks are devices that measure the passage of time and display it. Their modern versions have the following parts— a power source, resonator, and counter. A clock measures the amount of time that has passed by tracking something that happens in repeating fashion, at a fixed frequency. In many modern clocks, for example, this is a quartz crystal. More rudimentary devices often depended on natural events instead. The sundials in use in ancient times allowed people to ‘tell’ time by casting shadows of changing lengths against sunlight. In water clocks, water would slowly fill a vessel, with its levels at different times indicating howmuch time had passed. 

The hourglass served a similar purpose, using sand instead of water.

How did mechanical clocks work?

Until the Middle Ages, engineers around the world improved the water clock with additional water tanks, gear wheels, pulleys, and even attached musical instruments to the point where they were practically developing rudimentary analog computers.

One of the first major revolutions in timekeeping that paved the way for modern clocks was the invention of the verge escapement mechanism in the 13th century, which first opened the door to mechanical clocks. The fundamental element here was a gear that, through a combination of mechanical arrangements, could only move in fixed intervals. The gear was called an escape wheel if it was circular. A second gear, called the balance wheel, was enmeshed with the first such that when the escape wheel moved forward one gear tooth at a time, the balance wheel would oscillate back and forth. This oscillation would drive the ‘hands’ of a clock on a clock face as long as some force was applied on the balance wheel to keep it moving.

Between the 15th and 18th centuries, clockmakers developed and improved on spring­-driven clocks. These devices replaced the suspended weight that applied the force on the balance wheel in the previous designs with a coiled spring. To keep these clocks from becoming inaccurate as the spring unwound, clockmakers also developed mechanisms like the fusee, which ensured the spring always delivered a uniform force. The idea to couple a balance spring with the balance wheel also led to the advent of pocket watches.

After every ‘tick’ motion before the ‘tock’ motion towards the other side, the balance spring would return the balance wheel to its neutral position. As a result, the clocks lost a few minutes a day versus a few hours a day before.

Finally, in the mid­ 17th century, the Dutch inventor Christiaan Huygens invented the pendulum clock. While the clock itself used the by­ then familiar escapement mechanism, Huygens made an important contribution by working outa formula to convert the pendulum’s swings to the amount of time passed.

How did clocks change shipping?

The marine chronometer came the next century. For a ship to accurately know where it was on the face of the earth, it needed to know its latitude, longitude, and altitude. The latitude could be computed based on the Sun’s position in the sky and the altitude could be assumed to be sea level, leaving the longitude — which requires an accurate clock onboard each vessel. Pendulum clocks couldn’t serve this purpose because the ship’s rocking motion rendered them inaccurate.

A carpenter named John Harrison built a working marine chronometer in 1761 and delivered it to the British government for its longitude prize, worth GBP 20,000 at the time. This device featured mechanisms to ensure the clock's operation wasn’t affected by the ship's rocking, the force of gravity and some temperature changes. 

Thus, time flew until modernity dawned. The better clocks of the 19th century were electric clocks, that is, whose energy source was a battery or an electric motor rather than suspended weights or springs, although the former and latter were attached to improve the efficiency of existing designs. And at long last came the 20th century. 

How do quartz clocks work?

Two important types of clocks in operation today are the quartz clock and the atomic clock. The fundamental set up of both these instruments is similar: they have a power source, a resonator and a counter. In quartz clocks, the resonator is a quartz crystal. The power source sends electrical signals to a quartz crystal, whose crystal structure oscillates due to the piezoelectric effect. The signal's energy can be tuned to make the crystal oscillate at its resonant frequency, making it the resonator. The counter counts the number of periodic oscillations and converts them into seconds (depending on the crystal's period). A digital display shows the counter's results. 

Such quartz clocks are inexpensive to make and easy to operate, and their invention led to watches and wall clocks becoming very common from mid-20th century. 

What are atomic clocks?

An atomic clock may seem futuristic in comparison. The power source is a laser and the resonator is a group of atoms of the same isotope. The laser imparts just enough energy for the atom to jump from its low energy state to a specific higher energy state. And when the atom jumps backdown, it releases radiation with a well ­established frequency. For example, the caesium atomic clock uses caesium­133 atoms as the resonator.

When these atoms excite and then de-­excite, they release radiation of frequency 9,192,631,770 Hz. So when the counter detects 9,192,631,770 full waves of the radiation, it will record that one second has passed.

Atomic clocks are distinguished by their resonator; each such clock is called a time standard. For example, India’s time standard is a caesium atomic clock at the National Physical Laboratory, New Delhi, which maintains the Indian Standard Time. Many countries are currently developing next­generation optical clocks. This is because the higher the frequency of the radiation emitted in the clock, the more stable the clock will be. That emitted in a caesium atomic clock is in the microwave range (gigahertz), and the resulting clock loses or gains a second only once in 20 million years or so. The radiation in the next­ generation clocks is in the optical range (hundreds of terahertz) — thus the clocks’ name. These devices use strontium or ytterbium atoms as resonators and don’t miss a second in more than 10 billion years. 

Some physicists have even started work on the next ­to­ next generation of devices, called nuclear clocks: their resonators are the nuclei of specific atoms rather than the whole atom. Atomic clocks need to make sure the resonator atoms aren’t affected by energy from other sources, like a stray electromagnetic field; an atom’s nucleus, however, is located well within each atom, surrounded by electrons, and thus could be a more stable resonator. 

Since April this year, researchers around the world have reported three major developments in building functional nuclear clocks: a laser to excite thorium­229 nuclei to a specific higher energy state, a way to link a thorium­229 nuclear clock with an optical clock, and a precise estimate of the excitation energy. The nucleus’s de­excitation emission has a frequency of 2,020 terahertz, alluding to an ultra-­high precision.

MATHEMATICS IN NATURE

Petal Numbers

Count the number of petals on flowers in your backyard, out in the country, or in a picture book. You’ll find that the number five keeps coming up. Hibiscus, periwinkle, Jasmine all have five petals.

You may also find flowers with 3 petals, and others with 8, 13, or even 21 petals. But it’s harder to find flowers with 4, 6, 7, or 10 petals (unless some have been nibbled).

Is there something special about the numbers 3, 5, 8, 13, and 21? As a matter of fact, there is. 

To see that, start with 1. 

Then add 1 + 1 = 2. 

Keep doing this, and you get a pattern:

1 + 1 = 2

1 + 2 = 3

2 + 3 = 5

3 + 5 = 8

5 + 8 = 13

8 + 13 = 21, and so on. 

This set of numbers, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, … goes on to infinity. They are called Fibonacci numbers, after the mathematician who made them famous.

Fibonacci numbers show up all over nature: in the spirals of pinecones and pineapples, in the swirls of snail shells, in flowers and leaves. 

Why? It might have something to do with how plants and other living things grow, but no one knows for sure. 

EXPLORING SPACE

Life cycle of a star

Stars are hot balls of gas. They are held together by their own gravity. The nearest star to the Earth is the Sun. They give out light of their own due to nuclear reactions. 

What are the stages in the life cycle of a star?

● The life cycle of a star is determined by its mass. The larger the mass of a star the shorter will be its life cycle. The life of a star ranges from a few million years to a billion years, depending on the mass. 

● It is believed that stars are born from collapsing dense clouds of dust and gas found in spiral galaxies. These clouds are called molecular clouds or nebulae and are made up of 97% hydrogen and 3% helium. 

● When the nebula collapses under its own gravitational force, it breaks apart and results in the formation of a dense sphere called a Protostar. 

● These protostars are dense bodies of dust and gas which have not begun to generate light. As the mass of each protostar increases so does its gravity, squeezing the core of the protostar harder. 

● As the stars expand, they become less bright, due to the core running out of hydrogen and then helium. Then the star enters the main sequence or adult phase. A star remains in this phase for most part of its lifetime. 

● A star leaves its main sequence phase when it runs out of hydrogen and starts fusing helium and other elements. 

● Dim small stars are called red dwarfs. The fusion of hydrogen in them, takes place at a very slow rate and they are able to remain in the same sequence for billions of years. 

● The low mass stars like our sun expand and become red giants. This red giant is a large star that is bright with a cool surface. This is formed when the star runs out of hydrogen. They are very bright because they are so large. 

● Stars die in explosions called supernova. Supernova leads to the core compressing into a neutron star or a black hole. 

QUICK RESPONSE CODES

QR Codes

QR code is short for quick response code. It is an image that can be scanned by a smartphone camera to read the information stored on it. 

What is a QR code?

A QR code is an image that stores data as a two-dimensional square grid of black and white pixels. The pattern in a QR code translates into numbers, letters and website links (URLs). These pixels are black on a white background, which makes it easy for a camera to read. A QR code is anchored by three squares around it to enable scanners and cameras to orient. The reading of a QR code takes seconds and it thus allows for quick and easy access to information. 

There are two types of QR codes:

● Static

● Dynamic 

Static QR codes: A static QR code is used to provide information that does not need to be updated. For example, a wi-fi QR code, which lets you connect to any wi-fi network instantly, or a QR code on packaged foods, which gives you information about their nutrients, ingredients and how to use them. Or those on the movie tickets, which gives you access to the movie screening hall. Once this QR code is generated, the data represented by it cannot be changed, although it can be scanned an unlimited number of times. 

Dynamic QR Codes: Dynamic QR codes can be edited at any time. The URL linked with this type of QR code redirects the user to the main URL, which can be changed if required. For example, a QR code on a business card that is used to store contact details. In case your contact number changes, then that change can be made in the QR code without having to reprint the cards. 

Applications of QR Codes 

● Advertising: A QR code can connect you to a website or some important information about a product or event. It can open a form to be filled for registration and also give additional information about the event or offers. 

●Restaurants: Since the COVID-19 pandemic, contactless menus have become popular. Restaurants make a QR code available on each table in place of bulky paper menus. You can scan this code using your mobile phone and get the digital menu on your screen. The advantage to the restaurant owner is that new dishes can be updated without the need to scratch and scribble on the menus and paper is saved as new menu cards do not need to be printed with every change. 

●Postal services and libraries: QR codes are used to track parcels and books and get information about their location. 

● Display information: A QR code can be used on products to give additional information about the product such as nutritional information, ingredients and more. In some books, like encyclopedias, a QR code may be used to lead the reader to an educational video that gives more information about the subject matter. This makes learning interactive instead of static. In museums, QR codes are placed with each exhibit. The QR code contains the information about the exhibit. In bird sanctuaries and botanical gardens, QR codes are put on trees and spots where particular birds can be spotted. 

●Digital payments: QR code technology is making a big change in payment methods. Shoppers can simply scan the QR code displayed at a shop and pay the necessary amount. When the payment is successful, both the customer and the merchant get a notification. Contactless payments are accepted by small grocery shops, vegetable vendors and big stores alike. Auto rickshaws and taxis also have QR codes that can be scanned to make payments. Payments made this way are quick and effortless. 

Concerns with QR Codes: There are some potential dangers of QR codes that you should be aware of.

● Malicious QR codes also exist; scanning these will start downloading unwanted apps on your phone. This can be a security threat. 

● A QR code can direct you to a fake bank website, thus compromising your security. 

● A third party can get your phone number when you scan a QR code. This is a privacy concern that researchers and developers are trying to address. 

Did you know?

The QR code was developed in 1994 by the Japanese corporation Denso Wave, a subsidiary of Toyota Motor Corporation, in order to track automobile parts during the assembly process. 

WORLD’S FIRST CELEBRITY ROBOT

Sophia 

The world’s first celebrity robot is considered to be "Sophia". Developed by Hanson Robotics, Sophia made her debut in 2016 and gained international attention for her human-like appearance and advanced artificial intelligence capabilities. 

Sophia was designed to interact with humans, engage in conversations, and showcase facial expressions. Her media appearances and interviews with prominent personalities turned her into a sensation, leading to her recognition as a celebrity. Sophia's presence at events and conferences symbolised technological innovation and sparked discussions about the future of robotics and AI.

While there have been other famous robots throughout history, Sophia stands out as a significant milestone in the development of humanoid robots and their integration into popular culture. 

A DEADLY DISEASE

Tetanus

Tetanus is a deadly disease that is caused by the bacterium Clostridium tetani, which can commonly be found in soil, dust, faeces, and saliva. The transmission occurs when someone’s skin breaks or is cut from an object that is contaminated with Clostridium tetani, allowing the bacterium to go into the body. Once inside, Clostridium tetani will produce toxins that affect the nerves that control muscles, which is also why one of the primary symptoms of tetanus is muscle contractions. Additional symptoms include fever, sweating, headaches, and high blood pressure. Tetanus is a significant global health concern, claiming nearly 34,700 lives, according to the Global Burden of Disease study in 2019. Understanding the ways that tetanus transmits itself and its symptoms was crucial for the development of the first tetanus vaccine, which had its roots in a German physiologist named Emil Von Behring. 

Tetanus, a dangerous bacterial infection caused by Clostridium tetani, poses a global health threat. The tetanus vaccine has significantly lowered the death toll of this deadly disease by making the immune system produce antibodies against the tetanus toxin. The article will focus on the development and impact of the tetanus vaccine on public health.

The history of tetanus and its vaccines:  The tetanus vaccine, also known as tetanus toxoid, had its first roots created in 1890 by a group of German scientists, all under Emil Von Behring, a German physiologist. Emil Von Behring was later awarded a Nobel Prize in 1901, honoring his development of the tetanus serum and, additionally, the first serum therapy for diphtheria, which was another common and deadly disease during the late 1800s. Later, based on previous findings, in 1924, the first inactive tetanus toxoid vaccine was created, meaning that morbidity and mortality caused by tetanus were lowered to some extent. Eventually, in 1938, an improved version of this vaccine was created that made itself easier to absorb with much fewer side effects. 

This variant would be proven to be incredibly effective later, when World War II began, where it prevented soldiers in the army from contracting tetanus. Soon after that, in 1948, DTP began to be used. It worked similarly to the tetanus vaccine, but it was also able to work as a vaccine for diphtheria and pertussis (two other deadly diseases) all at the same time. Despite its multiple functions, it was replaced later in 1992 with new versions due to the fact that the original caused high adverse injection reactions among people who received the injection, such as swelling around the area where the vaccine was injected. Unlike the previous version of the DTP vaccine, the new versions were able to be used on both adults and children.

The Functions of the DTP Vaccine: The DTP vaccine, which includes versions of DTaP, Tdap, and TD, is the most commonly used vaccine against tetanus since it can additionally act as a vaccine against two other deadly viruses as well. At its core, the vaccine is a preventive measure designed to train the immune system to recognize and combat these harmful bacteria. When administered, the vaccine introduces mostly harmless small fragments of the bacteria, known as antigens, to the immune system. These antigens cause the body to trigger the immune system to launch a defense. The body instantly calls specific proteins and cells called antibodies that are made to neutralize and destroy the small fragments of the viruses. 

The antibodies work to take down the antigens and destroy them quickly because, despite them posing a minor threat, the body will still attack foreign objects found in itself. Whenever the antibodies destroy the antigens, there will always be multiple memory cells. These specialized cells remember the antigens, making it so that whenever the actual virus gets into the human body, the immune system will immediately respond and attack it. This provides a level of protection that endures over long periods of time.

The reason why multiple doses of vaccines are administered is because they serve to reinforce and optimize the immune system’s quick response and efficiency. The DTaP vaccine is primarily administered to children aged 6 weeks to 6 years. This vaccine operates through a five-dose series recommended by the CDC, actively engaging the immune system to recognize and combat these diseases. Administered at specific intervals during infancy and early childhood, the DTP vaccine aims to induce a tough and lasting immune response. Usually, negative effects are less severe, such as redness or swelling at the injection site and occasionally fever.

Conclusion: Tetanus is a deadly bacterial disease caused when Clostridium tetani enters the body. Thankfully, through the efforts of many scientists around the world, a vaccine was created. Overall, the tetanus vaccine plays a pivotal role in maintaining the immune system's defenses and ensuring that a strong defense against these bacterial threats is guaranteed. The impact of the DTP vaccine on public health has been profound and massive. By preventing the spreading of Tetanus and some other viruses, the vaccine has significantly reduced the incidence of these potentially life-threatening infections. Its inclusion has illustrated the vital role vaccines play in preserving public health around the entire world. Through a comprehensive understanding of its mechanism of action and the establishment of robust immunization programs, the DTP vaccine stands as a demonstration of the power of medicine and vaccines in promoting a safer and more resilient society.

INTERNATIONAL ACHIEVEMENT IN MATHEMATICS

International Math Olympiad

The IMO is a global level Mathematics Competition for High School students. 

A six-member student team from India have secured the country its best performance ever in the International Mathematical Olympiad (IMO) 2024. The Indian contingent of high school students came in fourth rank globally securing four Gold medals, one silver medal and one honourable mention at the just concluded 65th IMO held at Bath, United Kingdom.

This is the best performance by an Indian in IMO since the country’s debut in 1989 both in terms of number of Gold medals won and rank achieved. India’s previous best rank achieved until 2024 was rank 7, at IMO 1998 and IMO 2001. 

Adhitya Mangudy (Grade 11 from Pune), Ananda Bhaduri (Grade 12 from Guwahati), Kanav Talwar (Grade 10 from Noida), and Rushil Mathur (Grade 12 from Mumabi) bagged the gold medal. Arjun Gupta (Grade 12, from Delhi) won the Silver medal, and Siddharth Choppara (Grade 12 from Pune) clinched an honourable mention.

Globally, Team USA, China, and South Korea finished as the top three winners in that order. At fourth place, India’s total score at the Olympiad is 167 just one mark behind South Korea’s at third spot. The winning team USA’s total score is 192. In all 609 students (528 male, 81 Female) took part in the IMO 2024, which saw 108 countries participate. Mangudy’s performance also secured him an overall ranking of fifth - the best performance of an Indian team member ever. The Indian team trained at the IMO Training Camp held at Chennai Mathematical Institute (CMI) this year and was accompanied by mentors professor Krishnan Sivasubramanian of IIT Bombay, and former IMO medallists Rijul Saini of HBCSE and Rohan Goyal currently a Ph D student at MIT, USA, among others.

CMI director Madhavan Mukund said they see growing interest each year among student community to participate in International Olympiads, be it Mathematics or Science. “As they see success stories in the previous editions, their confidence and determination also goes up,” he adds.

A GUM DISEASE

Gingivitis

In simple words, gingivitis is defined as gum inflammation. An early stage of gum disease if ignored can progress and cause more severe oral health diseases.

Causes: Gingivitis is caused by Bacteria that build up as plaque around the tooth surface if the oral cavity is not properly taken care of. 

What is plaque: Dental plaque is a sticky, biofilm of bacteria that develops around teeth and it happens to everyone. It is the main cause of cavities and gum disease. This bacteria feeds off sugars left from food on teeth thus producing an acidic environment in the oral cavity. Acid attacks the tooth enamel and causes it to break down.

The only best way to deal with it is proper brushing and flossing twice a day with mouth rinsing after every meal, especially after the intake of sweet food.

Symptoms: Healthy gums are pink in color and firm in texture while touching, brushing, massaging, and flossing. While unhealthy gums can show up any of the following symptoms:

● Red, swollen, and painful gums

● Painful while touching, talking, swallowing, and     drinking water

● Bleeding from gums

● Sensitive teeth due to gum shrinkage

Bad breath (Halitosis): If the symptoms are ignored Gingivitis can progress either into ANUG (Acute necrotizing ulcerative gingivitis) or severe Periodontitis which can lead to Bone loss, and tooth loss too.

Prevention: Mild and early stages of gingivitis can be cured with simple precautions and techniques. 

1) Scheduling visits to the dentist every 6 months for regular check-ups.

2) Professional cleaning from Dentist or Hygienist to remove tartar buildup around the tooth.

3) Learning the proper technique of Brushing, flossing.

4) Making the habit of brushing teeth twice a day.

5) Limiting the amount of sticky, sweet, and acidic food and beverages.

6) Consuming a minimum of 2 liters of water per day.

7) Engaging with more fruits and vegetables in the diet.

8) Rinsing the mouth with normal water after every meal.

Treatment: In its early stage, it can be treated by routine dental checkups and Professional cleaning at the dental clinic if required. 

1. Scaling at an early stage prevents the buildup of plaque and tartar formation around the tooth surface and prevents the progression of gum disease. 

2. One must quit smoking, too much alcohol intake, and tobacco use in any form.

3. Brush your teeth twice a day with a soft bristle toothbrush.

Dentist would prescribe Medications in the form of Oral Antibiotics, Analgesics Topical antibiotics, or Xylocaine gel for infection and pain relief if required.

Home remedies: 

A Salt water rinses: It reduces bacterial multiplication, inflammation, pain, swelling, and bad breath.

Method - Take 1/2 teaspoonful of salt and mix it in 1 cup of lukewarm water. Swish for 30 seconds to 1 minute and spit. Repeat it 2- 3 times a day during the early stage of gingivitis and after Professional cleaning for 2-3 days.

Massaging the gums: Massaging the gums regularly twice a day regulates blood flow and thus prevents swelling, pain, and bleeding from the gums

 A Final note: Gingivitis is the most common gum disease which is reversible in the early stage of diagnosis. Moreover, prevention only requires maintaining Proper Oral Hygiene and regular visit to a Dentist for oral cavity checkups. If ignored it progresses to a more severe form of gum disease. So keep your Oral hygiene at bay and rock your Oral health status.

SCIENCE BEHIND WETNESS OF WATER

Is Water Wet?

The answer to this question requires some philosophical thinking and depends on how you define wetness. The debate over whether water is wet is likely to continue for as long as the planet is awash with the stuff. 

Most scientists define wetness as a liquid’s ability to maintain contact with a solid surface, meaning that water itself is not wet, but can make other materials wet. 

When you touch a wet surface, the water molecules stick to your skin, creating a wet sensation. But if you define wet as ‘made of liquid or moisture’, as some do, then water and all other liquids can be considered wet. 

Some people describe wetness as a physical, cooling sensation experienced when water takes in energy to evaporate into surrounding air. The balance between adhesive and cohesive forces determines the degree of wetting. Cohesive forces, such as hydrogen bonds, hold water molecules to each other and create a surface tension. With strong cohesive forces, water tends to stay as spherical droplets to minimise contact with a surface. Adhesive forces attract the water to the surface of another material and encourage it to spread. If the adhesive forces are stronger than the cohesive ones, then a surface will become wet. 

Other liquids – such as alcohol – are better than water at wetting. Adding detergents can improve water’s wetting ability by lowering the cohesive forces. The nature of the surface exposed to water affects how wet it will become. Water-hating (hydrophobic) surfaces, such as waterproof fabrics, push liquid drops to have as little contact as possible. You can define a material’s hydrophobicity in terms of the internal contact angle that a water droplet makes with the surface. A perfectly hydrophobic surface is totally water repellent with a contact angle of 180°, while a perfectly wettable surface has a contact angle of zero.

ARTICLE

Palm Oil In India And Its Health Effects

Oil palm is a crop that flourishes in the same regions as some of the world's most precious rainforests and appears in many food and household products.

Palm oil has emerged as the main global source of vegetable oil, forming nearly 33 per cent of the world's production mix. Palm oil is in nearly everything – it's in close to 50% of the packaged products we find in supermarkets, everything from pizza, doughnuts and chocolate, to deodorant, shampoo, toothpaste and lipstick. It's also used in animal feed and as a biofuel in many parts of the world

Indian Palm Oil Market

According to WWF, India is the world's largest importer of palm oil, driving 23 per cent of total global demand from plantations in Indonesia and Malaysia. Palm oil is the most consumed edible oil by volume in India, with a share of ~40%, followed distantly by soybean and mustard oils. Palm oil market size in India was valued at USD 5.16 billion in 2015. Increasing demand for edible oils owing to the burgeoning population and improving economic conditions is anticipated to remain the key growth driving factor over the forecast period. Edible oil emerged as the dominant application segment in India. Palm products are widely being utilized as cooking medium in India as there is limited availability of oilseeds, and it's cheaper pricing.

Biochemical Composition of Palm oil

The palm oil mainly contains palmitic acid, which is a saturated fatty acid. Other fatty acids are myristic, stearic, linoleic acid. Palm oil also contains vitamins, antioxidants and other phytonutrients.

Is palm oil bad for you?

Palm oil has a high saturated fat content, which can be harmful to cardiovascular health. However, one study (Odia et al., 2015) found that, when consumed as part of a balanced diet, “Palm oil does not have incremental risk for cardiovascular disease.”

What are saturated fats?

From a chemical standpoint, saturated fats are simply fat molecules that have no double bonds between carbon molecules because they are saturated with hydrogen molecules. Saturated fats are typically solid at room temperature.

How do saturated fats affect health?

Replacing foods that are high in saturated fat with healthier options can lower blood cholesterol levels and improve lipid profile environment effect. To produce palm oil, the fruit is collected from the trees, which can live an average of 28 to 30 years. To keep up with the incredibly high demand for the cheaply produced oil, acres of rainforest are being cut down - leading to a loss of animal habitat for endangered species.

A FORM OF ENERGY

Sound energy

Sound energy is a form of energy, which is produced when matter vibrates. More technically speaking, sound is produced when the kinetic energy that causes the vibration of an object or substance is transferred through matter in a wave-like formation. Typically, the energy in sound is far less than that in other forms of energy.

When a sound wave travels through air or water, the wave passes through the air or water molecules, pushing some molecules close together while parting the others, thereby causing them to vibrate. Eventually, as the wave travels, even the air inside your ears starts vibrating—that’s when you begin to perceive sound. Thus there are two different aspects to sound—the physical process that uses kinetic energy to produce sound energy and the secondary or physiological process that happens inside our ears and brains, which converts the sound energy into noise or voices. The first person to discover that sound needs a medium to travel through was English scientist Robert Boyle. He set an alarm clock ringing inside a large glass jar and while the clock was still ringing, he slowly sucked out all the air with a pump. As the air gradually disappeared, the sound died, proving that sound needs a medium to travel through.

HOW IS SOUND INTERPRETED? How a person interprets the sound depends on how close the person is to the source of sound. The further away the person is, the less the sound vibrations and thus the intensity of sound is much lower. Physiologically, the entire process of hearing a sound takes place in the ear. There are approximately 15,000 hair cells in the human inner ear, which are divided into two types—inner hair cells and outer hair cells. The inner hair cells are responsible for detecting sound and sending information about it to the brain, whilst the outer hair cells act as ‘amplifiers’, meaning that the ear can pick up even the quietest of sounds and can pick one sound out from others. Inner hair cells are lined up in a long row along the inner ear (which is essentially a tube filled with fluid) and each hair cell detects sounds of a different frequency. Hair cells nearest to the middle ear detect highpitched sounds, and then, as they get further and further away from the middle ear, they gradually detect lower and lower pitched sounds.

Humans can hear frequencies between 20 hertz and 20,000 hertz, which decreases as they age. Dogs can hear vibrations higher than 20,000 hertz but not below 40 hertz, which is why humans cannot hear dog whistles. Sometimes, loud noise can cause pain to people. This is called the pain threshold. This threshold is different from person to person. For example, teens can handle higher sound pressure than elderly people. People who work in factories tend to have a higher threshold because they get used to loud noise. 

HOW SOUND IS USED: Sound is used for numerous things apart from communicating information. 

● An experiment has proved that plants grow faster if you play classical music or talk to them every day. However, in 1962, Indian researcher Dr T C Singh deduced that rock music does not increase the growth levels of a plant, which showed that plants also had their own likes and dislikes. 

● Researcher Robert Monroe discovered the effect of sound on human consciousness. Different kinds of music, beats and waves can affect the human mood. 

● Doctors use ultrasound to create digital images of the body’s organs. 

● Researchers at Princess Grace Hospital in London have been working on a system that could destroy cancer cells with sound.

● Peter Davey, a 92-year-old saxophone player in New Zealand, has invented a device that boils water using sonic waves. 

● Bats and dolphins use high frequency sounds to see their surroundings. They create a mental picture of the area they are in by listening to how sound waves bounce off the environment. These days, many blind people are learning to do as dolphins and bats, by clicking their tongues and listening for the reverberations to understand their surroundings. 

● Yoshiki Hashimoto, of Tokyo’s Kaijo Corporation, has developed a machine that lifts objects and moves them by acoustic levitation using supersonic waves. It is said that this could be used for weaponisation too.

QUICK FACTS

● Sound produces a relatively low level of energy when compared to other forms of energy.

● Because sound produces such a low level of energy, it is not used to create electricity.

● If the vibrational waves of a medium change, the sound it produces will also change.

● Sound is measured in decibels and pascals instead of the traditional unit of energy measurement, the joule.

● The intensity of sound energy is usually measured using the perception of a normal hearing person.

● The measurement of sound energy is related to its pressure and intensity.

● We are able to hear different sounds because as the sound (vibrations) enters our ear, the ear also vibrates.

● Dogs’ ears are more sensitive than human ears, which allow them to hear sounds that humans cannot hear.

● There is no sound in space because there is no medium for sound to travel through.

● Sound travels through a solid much faster than through air. 

● Sound travels faster through a liquid such as water than it travels through air.

● The study of sound waves is called acoustics.

● Flies cannot hear at all.

● When whales communicate with each other underwater, their sound can travel up to 800kms into the ocean.

● The speed of sound in dry air at 20 degree Celsius is 1234kms/hr.

A PRECIOUS RESOURCE

Groundwater

 

Groundwater is our primary source of drinking water. About 85% of drinking water in India and 60% of water for irrigation comes from groundwater. 

Water seeps into soil from rain, melting snow or farmland irrigation, and gets collected underground. Below the ground there are different levels of water saturation. Closer to the surface, the gaps between the soil and rocks are filled with air and water. The deeper you go, the less air and the more water there is. The line below which there is no longer any air but only water is called water table. Underneath the water table, all available space is filled with water. 

The body of soil and rocks under the water table is called an aquifer. Groundwater fills all areas of the aquifer until it reaches the impenetrable rock at the bottom. It is like a container for groundwater. The Great Artesian Basin in Australia is the biggest known aquifer. India contains 14 principal aquifer systems and 42 major aquifers, including the Indus Basin, the most important cross-country water source. 

Dry land like deserts have a lower water table, whereas places with heavy rainfall have higher ones. The height of the water table decreases in summer due to evaporation, whereas in monsoon or early spring, the height of the water table increases. If the water table rises high enough to touch the surface, it becomes a spring, a lake or a river. 

To extract water, wells are dug through the water table. If given enough time for the aquifer to replenish itself, the well will keep supplying water. However, over-extraction can exhaust groundwater fairly quickly. The sensible management of these aquifers and groundwater is necessary if we want to preserve the water table. Water is a vital resource and like oxygen, life would be impossible without it.

COMPUTER CHIP INSIDE YOUR SMART DEVICE THAT KEEPS YOU CONNECTED

A SIM Card

Mobile phones are personal to the user. They can contain contact data for close family, personal messages and useful applications. When you change this device, often times you need to carry over a SIM card to transfer this data and identity to a new device. SIM stands for Subscriber Identity Module. This small card needs to be inserted into a device in order to connect to a mobile network and allow you to communicate over mobile internet services. Information such as contact details can either be saved to the device itself or onto the SIM card. If you wish to transfer all your contact details to a new phone – or any other data – you need to make sure that these details are saved to the SIM in the settings and not just the phone’s internal storage. 

Data transfer between a phone and SIM card involves communication between the device’s computer and the card’s chip. When you click a button with a message such as ‘save to SIM card’, the phone changes the chosen data into a SIM-accessible format. The phone’s operating system sends a signal to the device, commanding it to receive and store the data. When the action has been performed, the SIM card sends a return signal to confirm the process and a confirmation message appears on the screen for the user. The metal part of the SIM card connects to the phone’s electrical circuits, and data is transferred through electrical signals.

SIM cards are inserted by opening a small tray in the side of a mobile device. 

EMBEDDED SIMS

For new and the latest phones, there is no need to insert a SIM card for the phone to learn its identity. Instead of a chip that you need to physically remove and insert, SIM cards are now being built into devices as reprogrammable chips. Embedded SIM cards (eSIMs) are built into the device’s motherboard. Changing user’s service plan using an eSIM card involves changing data settings in user’s device’s settings instead. 

eSIMs are programmed remotely and a user’s data profile can be transferred wirelessly. For smart device manufacturers, this method takes up less space and enables them to produce sleeker devices. The saved space can be used to optimise other components. SIM cards have shrunk in size over the years, from a mini SIM to micro SIM down to a nano SIM and eSIM.

SIM cards can be used in phones, tablets, laptops, smartwatches, cameras and GPS devices.

How does this tiny smartcard store data?

Clock: This pin synchronises time data between the device and the SIM card so that data is read with correct timing.

Reset: When the device sends a reset signal, this section resets the SIM card to remove any errors or refresh the data.

VCC: This is the power supply pin, which controls the voltage provided to the SIM. 

GND: Also known as the ground pin, this section completes the electrical circuit and returns an electric current to the power source.

VPP: The programming voltage pin isn’t always required in modern cards. Its function is to increase the voltage for programming so that memory cells can store data.

I/O: The input/output pin sends commands between a device and its SIM.