From the pages of History

QUIT INDIA MOVEMENT

About

● It was a very intense and violent nationwide resistance against the British Raj which started on 8th August 1942, on the legendary call of “Do or Die” by Mahatma Gandhi from Bombay’s Gowalia Tank Maidan.

● Also known as “August Kranti”, it proved to be a turning point in the Indian Freedom Struggle.

Reasons: 

● The British unilaterally dragged India into World War II without taking the Indian Leadership into confidence.

● Economic hardships faced by Indian masses due to the war.

● Reverses faced by the British from the Japanese forces in South East Asia and the war escalating upto the Indian borders at Burma.

● Rising national sentiments and the demand of complete independence by the Indian National Congress.

Immediate Cause:

● Failure of Cripps Mission (March 1942): It failed to pacify the Congress Leadership by offering a post-war dominion status.

● Gandhi termed it a “post-dated cheque on a crashing bank.”

Series of Events:

● On July 14, 1942, the Congress Working Committee met at Wardha and decided to launch a mass civil disobedience movement under the leadership of Gandhi.

● An All India Congress Committee meeting was called at Bombay where on 8th August 1942 the Congress passed the “Quit India Resolution”.

Government Response:

● On the 8th and 9th of August 1942, the government arrested all the prominent leaders of Congress and it was declared an illegal organisation.

● Mahatma Gandhi was imprisoned in Aga Khan Palace, Poona.

● Nehru, Patel, Abul Kalam Azad, and many other leaders were imprisoned in the Ahmednagar Fort.

Public Response:

● The immediate arrest of all big Congress leaders made it a Leaderless Movement.

● Aruna Asaf Ali hoisted the Triclour at Bombay's Gowalia Tank Maidan on 9th August, 1942.

● Usha Mehta ran an underground radio station also called the Secret Congress Radio.

● The movement spread across the country, especially in rural areas. Protests, strikes, and uprisings took place in various regions and it turned violent at many places.

● Revolutionary activities were widespread along with attacks on government buildings and machinery.

● Jaiprakash Nararayan escaped from Hazaribagh jail and formed “Azad Dasta”, a revolutionary organisation at the Bihar-Nepal Border. Ram Manohar Lohia also ran an underground radio for this organisation during the movement.

Brutal Suppression:

● The British resorted to all sorts of measures with means available at their end including mass fines, flogging at public events, arrest, detention, martial laws, public firing and thus curbed the movement with a heavy hand, though underground activities continued.

Limitations:

● Chaotic and sporadic in nature: Due to the absence of central leadership, a nationwide coordination was missing.

● Failed to achieve its immediate objective: Independence ultimately came much later in 1947 under different circumstances along with partition.

● Absence of a united political front: Muslim League, Communist Party of India, Hindu Mahasabha along with B. R. Ambedkar and Periyar were against the Movement.

● Communal divide: Muslim participation in the movement was even lower than the CDM. Jinnah appealed to Muslims to join the armed forces.

Achievements:

● Loss of British Morality: The use of brutal might on the general public at such a large scale lead to the Loss of British Moral Right to rule India anymore.

● Fear in British Aristocracy: It convinced the British Authority that India cannot be ruled further on colonial norms.

Do You Know?

The term ‘Quit India’ was termed by Yusuf Meherally, who also coined the term 'Simon Go-Back'.

The Ancient Shrine that Inspired Modern Architecture

CHAUSATH YOGINI TEMPLE, MITAOLI 

Perched atop a hill in the quiet village of Mitaoli, Madhya Pradesh, the Chausath Yogini Temple—also known as Ekattarso Mahadeva Temple—is a unique architectural and spiritual marvel. Built in the 11th century by King Devapala of the Kachchhapaghata dynasty, it is one of the few surviving temples in India dedicated to the 64 yoginis, powerful female deities revered in Tantric traditions.

A Temple of Yoginis

The term Chausath Yogini literally means “64 yoginis.” These goddesses, associated with mysticism and cosmic energy, played a vital role in Tantric worship practices. The temple’s design reflects this sacred purpose—an open-air circular courtyard surrounded by 64 chambers, each believed to have housed an idol of a yogini. At the very heart of the structure lies an open mandapa (pavilion) dedicated to Lord Shiva, symbolising the union of masculine and feminine energies in the universe.

Architectural Brilliance

The temple’s architecture is both simple and profound. Constructed entirely of sandstone, it stands as a testament to India’s medieval craftsmanship. The circular layout is particularly striking, creating a sense of harmony and cosmic balance. The open-to-sky design reflects the Tantric principle of worship under the vast expanse of the heavens—signifying communion with cosmic forces, beyond the confines of enclosed spaces.

Link to Parliament House

One of the most fascinating aspects of the Chausath Yogini Temple is its alleged influence on modern Indian architecture. Many historians and architects believe that its circular design and central dome served as the inspiration for the Parliament House in New Delhi, designed by Sir Edwin Lutyens and Sir Herbert Baker in the early 20th century. The resemblance is remarkable—both structures feature a circular form with chambers arranged around a central open space. This connection highlights how ancient Indian architectural wisdom continues to shape modern civic spaces.

A Blend of History, Spirituality, and Legacy

Beyond its architectural significance, the Chausath Yogini Temple represents India’s deep-rooted spiritual traditions. It preserves a rare glimpse into the Tantric practices of the medieval period while also standing as a symbol of continuity between India’s sacred past and its democratic present. Visitors who climb the stone steps leading to the hilltop temple are rewarded not only with breathtaking views of the landscape but also with a profound sense of connection to centuries of heritage.

✨ In essence, the Chausath Yogini Temple at Mitaoli is more than an ancient shrine—it is a living link between history, spirituality, and modern nation-building.

Nature’s Magical Phenomenon in Lapland, Finland

THE MIDNIGHT SUN 

Imagine a summer night when the sun never sets, bathing the world in a golden glow even at midnight. This extraordinary phenomenon, known as the Midnight Sun, is one of nature’s most breathtaking spectacles—and Lapland, Finland, is one of the best places on Earth to experience it.

What is the Midnight Sun?

The Midnight Sun occurs in regions north of the Arctic Circle during summer months. Because of the Earth’s axial tilt, the sun remains visible for 24 hours a day. In Finnish Lapland, this happens roughly from late May to mid-July, when days and nights blend into one seamless, glowing horizon.

Lapland: Finland’s Arctic Wonderland

Lapland, in northern Finland, is famed for its untouched wilderness, reindeer herds, Sami culture, and winter auroras. But in summer, the Midnight Sun transforms this snowy wonderland into a vibrant, green paradise. Rolling hills, pristine lakes, and pine forests seem to come alive under the endless daylight.

Why It’s Unforgettable

Standing under a sunlit sky at midnight feels magical, almost otherworldly. It offers a chance to reconnect with nature and experience time in a new way—without darkness, schedules seem to fade, and adventure feels limitless.

The Midnight Sun in Lapland isn’t just a natural phenomenon—it’s an invitation to wonder, explore, and savor the beauty of our planet in its purest form.

Timeless Treasures of Indian Heritage

AJANTA AND ELLORA CAVES 

The Ajanta and Ellora Caves in Maharashtra, India, are among the greatest examples of ancient Indian art and architecture. Though often mentioned together, they are about 100 km (62 miles) apart and represent different time periods and religious traditions. Both are UNESCO World Heritage Sites, celebrated for their breathtaking craftsmanship, cultural significance, and ability to bring history to life.

🏛 Ajanta Caves – Painted Narratives of Buddhism

● Location: Nestled near the Waghora River, about 100 km from Ellora.

● Religion: Entirely Buddhist.

● History: Built in two phases, from around the 2nd century BCE to the 5th century CE, the 29 rock-cut caves served as monasteries and prayer halls (chaityas) for Buddhist monks.

● Artistic Significance: Ajanta is world-renowned for its mural paintings and frescoes that narrate the Jataka tales, depicting Buddha’s previous lives in both human and animal forms. These artworks are admired for their expressive portrayal of human emotions, fine detailing, and the use of natural mineral pigments that have retained their vibrancy for centuries.

● Rediscovery: After being abandoned for centuries, the caves were rediscovered in 1819 by British officer John Smith during a tiger-hunting expedition.

● Cultural Importance: Ajanta offers a glimpse into ancient Indian life, fashion, and spirituality while showcasing the pinnacle of early Buddhist art.

🏰 Ellora Caves – A Harmony of Faiths in Stone

● Location: Carved into the Charanandri Hills near the village of Ellora.

● Religion: Represents Buddhism, Hinduism, and Jainism, reflecting India’s long tradition of religious harmony.

● History: Excavated between the 6th and 10th centuries CE, Ellora’s 34 caves illustrate the coexistence and flourishing of different faiths.

● Artistic Significance:

Buddhist Caves (1–12): Monasteries and prayer halls with serene Buddhas.

Hindu Caves (13–29): Known for dynamic carvings of Hindu deities and epics. The most remarkable is Kailasa Temple (Cave 16)—the largest monolithic rock excavation in the world, carved top-down and dedicated to Lord Shiva.

Jain Caves (30–34): Distinguished by delicate sculptures symbolizing Jain philosophy.

● Cultural Importance: Ellora’s architectural brilliance and monumental sculptures represent artistic mastery and religious inclusivity. 

Key Differences and Similarities

• ​Religious Focus: Ajanta is exclusively Buddhist, while Ellora showcases a multi-religious complex of Buddhist, Hindu, and Jain monuments.

• ​Time Period: Ajanta is older, with its caves dating from the 2nd century BCE to the 5th century CE. Ellora's caves are newer, dating from the 6th to the 10th centuries CE.

• ​Art Form: While both sites feature exquisite art, Ajanta is particularly famous for its paintings, while Ellora is known for its remarkable sculptures and architecture, especially the monolithic Kailasa Temple.

• ​Shared Traits: Both cave complexes are masterpieces of ancient Indian rock-cut architecture, serve as a testament to the skill of artisans from the past, and are recognised as UNESCO World Heritage Sites.

🌟 Why they matter today

The Ajanta and Ellora caves are more than monuments—they are living museums that preserve the spirit of ancient India. They:

Showcase artistic brilliance and engineering skill.

Reflect religious diversity and cultural harmony.

Continue to inspire historians, artists, and travelers worldwide.

Visiting these caves is like stepping into a time capsule, where every sculpture and painting whispers stories of devotion, creativity, and the timeless values of India’s heritage.

Australia’s Sacred Rock

ULURU 

Uluru, also known in the past as Ayers Rock, is one of the most famous natural landmarks in Australia. It is a giant sandstone rock formation that rises dramatically from the flat desert in the Northern Territory.

Key facts about Uluru:

Height: About 348 metres tall (taller than the Eiffel Tower!).

Length: Around 3.6 kilometres long.

Age: Scientists believe it formed more than 500 million years ago.

Colour: It appears to change colours during the day – from red to orange to purple – depending on the sunlight.

Cultural Importance: 

For the Anangu people, the Aboriginal community of the area, Uluru is a sacred site. They believe it was created by ancestral beings during the Dreamtime, their spiritual creation period. Many caves and rock paintings around Uluru tell their ancient stories.

Name and History: 

The word Uluru comes from the Anangu language and is the original name of the rock. It does not have a direct English translation, but it is the proper Aboriginal name for this sacred place.

When Europeans arrived, they renamed it Ayers Rock in 1873 after Sir Henry Ayers, a British official.

In 1985, the Australian government returned ownership of Uluru to the Anangu people. Since then, its official name is Uluru, and Ayers Rock is rarely used today.

Modern Recognition: 

Uluru is part of the Uluru-Kata Tjuta National Park, which is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Climbing Uluru was once common, but since 2019 it has been banned out of respect for the Anangu people’s wishes.

Today, visitors can walk around its base, learn Aboriginal stories, and enjoy its breathtaking beauty.

Why is Uluru special?

It is one of the world’s largest monoliths (a single large rock).

It is both a natural wonder and a spiritual symbol of Australia.

Many people call it the “SPIRITUAL HEART OF AUSTRALIA ”, and some even describe it poetically as the “CENTRE OF THE UNIVERSE ” because of its energy and sacred importance.

✨Uluru teaches us to respect both nature and culture. Some places are not just beautiful—they are sacred, carrying the wisdom of ancient people.

The Frozen Continent of Wonders

ANTARCTICA 

Antarctica is Earth’s southernmost and fifth-largest continent, lying almost entirely south of the Antarctic Circle and surrounded by the vast Southern Ocean. It is a land of extremes—the coldest, driest, and windiest continent—and also has the highest average elevation of all continents. Despite its harsh conditions, it plays a vital role in regulating the planet’s climate and serves as a hub for international scientific research.

Geography and Ice Cover: Covering around 14 million square kilometers, Antarctica is almost entirely blanketed by a massive ice sheet that can be up to 4.8 km (3 miles) thick. This ice holds about 90% of the world’s ice and 70% of its fresh water. If it were to melt completely, global sea levels would rise by many meters, drastically altering coastlines worldwide.

The Transantarctic Mountains divide the continent into East and West Antarctica. Prominent features include the Ross Ice Shelf, the Ronne Ice Shelf, and Mount Vinson (4,892 m), the highest peak.

Climate: Antarctica is a polar desert with very low precipitation. The average annual temperature in the interior can drop to –43.5 °C (–46.3 °F), and the lowest temperature ever recorded on Earth—–89.2 °C (–128.6 °F)—was measured at Vostok Station. Coastal summer temperatures may rise to around –10 °C, but winters are long, dark, and bitterly cold. Strong katabatic winds, sometimes exceeding 200 km/h, sweep across the ice.

Flora and Fauna: Plant life is minimal, limited mainly to mosses, lichens, and algae in ice-free regions. The surrounding Southern Ocean, however, teems with life—penguins (including emperor and Adélie), seals (Weddell, crabeater, leopard), whales (blue, humpback, orca), and numerous seabirds like skuas and petrels.

Human Presence: Antarctica has no permanent human population. Human activity is limited to scientists, researchers, and occasional tourists. Over 70 research stations operate on the continent, run by more than 30 countries.

India’s presence in Antarctica is significant:

Dakshin Gangotri – India’s first base, established in 1983, now decommissioned and used as a supply and historical site.

Maitri – Operational since 1989, located on the Schirmacher Oasis.

Bharati – Commissioned in 2012, situated between Thala Fjord and Quilty Bay.

These stations enable research on climate, glaciology, geology, and marine ecosystems.

The Antarctic Treaty System: Signed in 1959 and now with 56 member nations (including India), the Antarctic Treaty declares the continent a scientific preserve, bans military activity, prohibits mining, and protects its fragile environment. No country owns Antarctica, and no new territorial claims are recognised under the treaty.

Importance and Conservation

Antarctica is crucial for:

Climate regulation – Its ice reflects sunlight, helping keep global temperatures stable.

Scientific research – Ice cores preserve a record of Earth’s climate history.

Biodiversity – The Southern Ocean supports unique ecosystems.

However, climate change poses serious threats, with warming temperatures, melting ice shelves, and habitat loss impacting wildlife and global sea levels.

Fascinating Facts:

● Antarctica has no official time zone.

● The largest iceberg ever recorded, B-15, was larger than Jamaica.

● Lake Vostok, buried under 4 km of ice, has been sealed off for millions of years.

● In summer, the sun shines 24 hours a day; in winter, darkness lasts for months.

Conclusion: Antarctica is more than a frozen wilderness—it is a global treasure. Protected under international agreement, it remains a place for peace and science. The challenges it faces from climate change are a warning for the whole planet, reminding us that even the most remote places are connected to our shared future.

From Ötzi to the Classroom

🎒 THE EVOLUTION OF BACKPACKS 🎒 

The backpack—an everyday object for students, hikers, and travelers—has a long and fascinating history. While the modern backpack as we know it is a relatively recent invention, the idea of carrying supplies on one's back to keep the hands free dates back thousands of years. Let’s take a journey through time to see how backpacks have evolved from primitive survival tools to high-tech, stylish accessories.

🏹 Ancient Origins

The first known example of a backpack comes from Ötzi the Iceman, a Neolithic man who lived around 3300 BCE. His well-preserved remains were discovered in the Alps, and among his belongings was what archaeologists believe to be the world’s oldest backpack: a U-shaped hazel rod, two wooden boards, and a leather bag. This early frame pack shows that even ancient humans understood the need to carry loads efficiently during travel and hunting.

Throughout ancient and medieval times, people used basic carrying devices like satchels, knapsacks, and shoulder bags, often made from animal hides, leather, or canvas. Soldiers, merchants, and travelers relied on these to transport food, weapons, or trade goods.

🛠️ The Birth of the Modern Backpack (19th–20th Century)

🔹 Henry Merriam (1878)

A U.S. Army officer, Merriam patented a knapsack with an external sheet-metal frame. His aim was to distribute weight more evenly and keep the pack off the soldier’s back. Though not widely adopted due to discomfort, his design introduced the concept of the external frame, which became a key feature in later innovations.

🔹 Ole Bergan (1908)

Norwegian inventor Bergan, after struggling with an uncomfortable load on a hunting trip, designed a backpack with a juniper wood frame shaped to the curve of his back. Later, he used tubular steel, making it lighter and stronger. His ergonomic design was patented and remained popular for decades.

🔹 Lloyd Nelson (1920s)

Inspired by indigenous Alaskan packs, Nelson created the "Trapper Pack", an external-frame pack with canvas bands and a wooden frame. It allowed the bag to detach from the frame and was among the first to be mass-produced, revolutionising outdoor gear.

🧭 Mid-20th Century: Innovation and Adventure

The mid-1900s saw huge changes in backpack design due to increased interest in hiking, camping, and mountaineering.

✨ Zippered Closures (1938)

Gerry Cunningham, a rock climber, introduced backpacks with zippers, replacing buckles and drawstrings. This made packs more secure and convenient.

🏔️ The Kelty Backpack (1952)

Dick and Nena Kelty handcrafted aluminum-frame backpacks with features like padded shoulder straps and hip belts. These distributed weight to the hips—an essential improvement for carrying heavy loads on long treks.

🧵 The Nylon Revolution (1967): Cunningham again made history by using nylon instead of canvas. Nylon was lightweight, waterproof, and durable, making backpacks more comfortable and weather-resistant.

📚 The Rise of the Student Backpack: Although the term “backpack” appeared in print around 1910, it wasn’t until the 1970s that backpacks became popular in schools. 

Before this, students used: Leather satchels, Book straps, Briefcases.

In the late '70s and early '80s, companies like JanSport and The North Face introduced small, lightweight daypacks designed for hikers. Students at the University of Washington started using these for their books, and the trend quickly spread. Soon, backpacks became an essential item for students of all ages, offering convenience, comfort, and style.

Today’s Backpacks – Versatile and High-Tech

Modern backpacks are designed for every need:

Laptop compartments, USB charging ports, Anti-theft zippers, Ergonomic support systems.

They are made with advanced materials like polyester blends, recycled fabrics, and waterproof linings. Whether it’s for school, hiking, travel, or fashion, there’s a backpack for everyone.

🌱 The Future of Backpacks

With growing awareness about sustainability, many brands now produce eco-friendly backpacks using: Recycled plastic bottles, Organic cotton, Biodegradable materials.

Some futuristic designs even include solar panels to charge devices while on the move.

🎯 Conclusion

From the rugged gear of ancient hunters to the high-tech schoolbags of today, the backpack has transformed over millennia—yet its purpose remains the same: to carry what we need while keeping our hands free. This evolution reflects not only our changing lifestyles but also our creativity, problem-solving, and love for adventure.

A dark chapter in India's freedom struggle

JALLIANWALA BAGH MASSACRE 

One of the most heartbreaking chapters in Indian history is the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre, also known as the Amritsar Massacre. It happened on April 13, 1919, and became a symbol of British cruelty and Indian resilience in the fight for independence.

Background: What led to the massacre?

After World War I, the British government passed the Rowlatt Act, a law that allowed them to arrest and detain people without trial. This act was deeply unfair and sparked protests all over India. In Amritsar, the arrest of two respected Indian leaders—Dr. Saifuddin Kitchlew and Dr. Satyapal—on April 10, 1919, led to public outrage and violent clashes.

In response, the British imposed martial law in the city, banning public gatherings. Brigadier-General Reginald Dyer was put in charge of maintaining order.

The day of the massacre: April 13, 1919

Thousands of people, including men, women, and children, gathered in Jallianwala Bagh, a walled garden in Amritsar, to peacefully protest and also celebrate Baisakhi, a major festival in Punjab. Many were unaware of the martial law ban on gatherings. Without any warning, General Dyer arrived with his troops, blocked the only exit, and ordered them to open fire on the unarmed crowd.

The horror unfolds: The shooting lasted about 10 minutes. Nearly 1,650 bullets were fired into the helpless crowd. With no escape, people ran in panic, climbed walls, or jumped into a well to avoid the bullets. Official British records said 379 people were killed and over 1,200 wounded, but Indian sources estimated over 1,000 deaths.

The aftermath: Shock across the nation 

■ The massacre shocked the entire nation and drew global criticism.

■ Rabindranath Tagore gave up his British knighthood in protest.

■ The British set up the Hunter Commission to investigate, which condemned Dyer’s actions but gave no serious punishment.

Surprisingly, some people in Britain praised Dyer, even raising funds for him.

Impact on the freedom movement: The Jallianwala Bagh Massacre deeply influenced Mahatma Gandhi, strengthening his resolve to fight for complete independence. It also led to the launch of the Non-Cooperation Movement in 1920.

It was a turning point that exposed the harsh reality of British rule and united Indians across the country in their fight for freedom.

A memorial of remembrance:

Today, Jallianwala Bagh is a national memorial in Amritsar. Visitors can still see:

● Bullet marks on the walls.

● The well into which people jumped to escape.

● A flame-shaped memorial that stands in 

    silent tribute to the innocent lives lost.

Why students should remember this: The Jallianwala Bagh Massacre teaches us about the importance of standing up against injustice, the value of freedom, and the sacrifices made by our ancestors. It reminds us that the path to independence was paved with courage, pain, and sacrifice.

Let us always remember the victims and continue to honor their memory by being responsible, informed, and united citizens of free India.

Know your world

COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD 🌍

The world is made up of 195 countries, each unique in its geography, culture, history, language, and government. These countries together form the international community that we live in today.

🌐 What is a Country?

A country is a distinct territory with its own government, laws, and boundaries. It is recognised by other nations and is often a member of international organisations like the United Nations (UN).

🧭 How Many Countries Are There?

As of now, there are:

195 countries in the world

193 are member states of the United Nations

2 are observer states: the Vatican City and Palestine

🗺️ Continents and Countries

The world is divided into 7 continents, and each continent contains a group of countries:

1. Asia – Largest continent; countries like India, China, Japan, and Saudi Arabia.

2. Africa – Second-largest; known for cultural and wildlife diversity. Countries include Nigeria, Egypt, Kenya.

3. Europe – Known for ancient history and modern cities. Countries include France, Germany, Italy.

4. North America – Includes the USA, Canada, Mexico, etc.

5. South America – Home to the Amazon rainforest. Countries include Brazil, Argentina, Peru.

6. Australia (Oceania) – Smallest continent; includes Australia, New Zealand, and island nations like Fiji.

7. Antarctica – No countries, but many nations have research stations here.

🌏 Diversity Around the World

Each country has its own:

Flag 🇮🇳 🇺🇸 🇫🇷

National language (e.g., Hindi in India, French in France)

Currency (e.g., Rupee, Dollar, Euro)

Culture and traditions

Form of government (democracy, monarchy, republic, etc.)

🕊️ Importance of Global Unity

Although we are divided into countries, we share one planet. Organisations like the UN, WHO, and UNESCO help countries work together for peace, health, education, and development.

🌟 Fun Facts:

Smallest country: Vatican City

Largest country: Russia

Most populated country: India (as of 2023)

Newest country: South Sudan (formed in 2011)

The study of countries helps us understand different lifestyles, values, and perspectives. It promotes respect for other cultures and the idea that we are all part of one global family. 🌍

Here's a continent-wise breakdown of the 195 countries (193 UN member states + 2 observer states), keeping in mind that some countries are transcontinental or have territories associated with other continents.

Africa (54 Countries)

 * Algeria

 * Angola

 * Benin

 * Botswana

 * Burkina Faso

 * Burundi

 * Cabo Verde

 * Cameroon

 * Central African Republic

 * Chad

 * Comoros

 * Congo (Republic of the)

 * Côte d'Ivoire

 * Democratic Republic of the Congo

 * Djibouti

 * Egypt (partially in Asia)

 * Equatorial Guinea

 * Eritrea

 * Eswatini

 * Ethiopia

 * Gabon

 * Gambia

 * Ghana

 * Guinea

 * Guinea-Bissau

 * Kenya

 * Lesotho

 * Liberia

 * Libya

 * Madagascar

 * Malawi

 * Mali

 * Mauritania

 * Mauritius

 * Morocco

 * Mozambique

 * Namibia

 * Niger

 * Nigeria

 * Rwanda

 * Sao Tome and Principe

 * Senegal

 * Seychelles

 * Sierra Leone

 * Somalia

 * South Africa

 * South Sudan

 * Sudan

 * Tanzania, United Republic of

 * Togo

 * Tunisia

 * Uganda

 * Zambia

 * Zimbabwe

Asia (48 Countries)

* Afghanistan

* Armenia (transcontinental, often listed in  

  Europe)

* Azerbaijan (transcontinental, often listed in 

  Europe)

* Bahrain

* Bangladesh

* Bhutan

* Brunei Darussalam

* Cambodia

* China

* Cyprus (geographically Asian, culturally 

   European)

* East Timor (Timor-Leste)

* Egypt (partially in Africa)

* Georgia (transcontinental, often listed in 

   Europe)

* India

* Indonesia

* Iran (Islamic Republic of)

* Iraq

* Israel

* Japan

* Jordan

* Kazakhstan (transcontinental)

* Kuwait

* Kyrgyzstan

* Lao People's Democratic Republic

* Lebanon

* Malaysia

* Maldives

* Mongolia

* Myanmar

* Nepal

* North Korea (Democratic People's Republic of 

  Korea)

* Oman

* Pakistan

* Palestine, State of (Observer State)

* Philippines

* Qatar

* Republic of Korea (South Korea)

* Russian Federation (transcontinental, generally 

  considered European)

* Saudi Arabia

* Singapore

* Sri Lanka

* Syrian Arab Republic

* Tajikistan

* Thailand

* Turkey (transcontinental, often listed in Europe)

* Turkmenistan

* United Arab Emirates

* Uzbekistan

* Viet Nam

* Yemen

Europe (44 Countries)

 * Albania

 * Andorra

 * Armenia (transcontinental, often listed in Asia)

 * Austria

 * Azerbaijan (transcontinental, often listed in 

   Asia)

 * Belarus

 * Belgium

 * Bosnia and Herzegovina

 * Bulgaria

 * Croatia

 * Cyprus (geographically Asian, culturally 

    European)

 * Czechia (Czech Republic)

 * Denmark

 * Estonia

 * Finland

 * France

 * Georgia (transcontinental, often listed in Asia)

 * Germany

 * Greece

 * Holy See (Vatican City) (Observer State)

 * Hungary

 * Iceland

 * Ireland

 * Italy

 * Latvia

 * Liechtenstein

 * Lithuania

 * Luxembourg

 * Malta

 * Republic of Moldova

 * Monaco

 * Montenegro

 * Netherlands

 * North Macedonia

 * Norway

 * Poland

 * Portugal

 * Romania

 * Russian Federation (transcontinental, generally 

   considered European)

 * San Marino

 * Serbia

 * Slovakia

 * Slovenia

 * Spain

 * Sweden

 * Switzerland

 * Turkey (transcontinental, often listed in Asia)

 * Ukraine

 * United Kingdom

North America (23 Countries)

 * Antigua and Barbuda

 * Bahamas

 * Barbados

 * Belize

 * Canada

 * Costa Rica

 * Cuba

 * Dominica

 * Dominican Republic

 * El Salvador

 * Grenada

 * Guatemala

 * Haiti

 * Honduras

 * Jamaica

 * Mexico

 * Nicaragua

 * Panama

 * Saint Kitts and Nevis

 * Saint Lucia

 * Saint Vincent and the Grenadines

 * Trinidad and Tobago

 * United States of America

South America (12 Countries)

 * Argentina

 * Bolivia (Plurinational State of)

 * Brazil

 * Chile

 * Colombia

 * Ecuador

 * Guyana

 * Paraguay

 * Peru

 * Suriname

 * Uruguay

 * Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of)

Oceania (14 Countries)

 * Australia

 * Fiji

 * Kiribati

 * Marshall Islands

 * Micronesia (Federated States of)

 * Nauru

 * New Zealand

 * Palau

 * Papua New Guinea

 * Samoa

 * Solomon Islands

 * Tonga

 * Tuvalu

 * Vanuatu

Antarctica

There are no independent countries on the continent of Antarctica. Several countries have territorial claims, but these are not universally recognized and the continent is governed by the Antarctic Treaty System.