ANCIENT LANGUAGES RICH IN LITERATURE

Classical Languages

The Union Cabinet has recently approved giving the status of ‘classical language’ to five more languages - Marathi, Bengali, Pali, Prakrit, and Assamese. With this cabinet decision, the number of languages that have the status will nearly double from six to 11. The languages that had the tag earlier were Tamil, Sanskrit, Telugu, Kannada, Malayalam, and Odia. Tamil was granted the status in 2004 and the last language to get it was Odia, in 2014. Prakrit and Pali are two distinct languages that have been derived from Sanskrit.

What is the criteria for a language to be recognised as classical?

The following criteria have to be met:

● High antiquity of the language’s early texts/recorded history over a period of 1,500-2,000 years.

● A body of ancient literature/texts, which is considered a heritage by generations of speakers.

● Knowledge texts, especially prose texts in addition to poetry, epigraphical and inscriptional evidence.

● The classical languages and literature could be distinct from their current form or could be discontinuous with later forms of their offshoots.

CAMPAIGNS, VOTES AND ELECTIONS

To elect the President of America

Every four years, US citizens cast their vote for the person they think should hold the coveted position of president of their country.

In 2024, another election is on the horizon, when the nation will decide if Democratic nominee Kamala Harris or Republican Donald Trump will be the next president to hold office. At the ballot box, Americans make their decision on who they think should be the next person to run the country. However, they’re not directly voting for the next president. Instead, they’re voting for members of the Electoral College, called ‘electors’, whose job it is to elect the president and the vice president. According to the American Constitution, electors can’t be members of Congress or hold federal office and are elected by political parties.

Each state has its own number of electors, based on the state’s resident population. The more citizens in the state, the more electors that state holds. For example, California has more than 40 million inhabitants and 55 electors, whereas Wyoming only has around 500,000 residents and just three electors. All but two states have a winner-takes-all policy, where all the state’s electoral votes are given to the candidate that wins the state’s popular vote. Maine and Nebraska differ by distributing electors within their congressional districts, along with two ‘at-large’ electoral votes based on the overall state-wide popular vote. Electors often pledge to their states to vote for the same presidential nominee as the result of their state’s popular vote. However, that hasn’t always been the case. There have been 157 ‘faithless electors’ who, when faced with casting their electoral vote, have chosen an alternative candidate. There have been several reasons why an elector has changed their vote, including the death of a nominee, a change in candidate within the same party or, in one case, by accident. In 1796, a Federalist elector from Pennsylvania intentionally switched their vote from Federalist nominee John Adams to Democratic-Republican Thomas Jefferson.

All in all, there are 538 electors across the country – equal to the number of House Representatives and Congress members – and a further three votes for the District of Columbia, that decide the next president. The candidate with more than half of the votes (270) wins the presidency. If on the rare occasion a single candidate doesn’t get more than 270 votes, then the House of Representatives elects the president. The two-stage voting system of the Electoral College can result in a unique situation where a candidate can win the votes of the electors, despite not winning the popular vote from all 50 states. For example, in 2016 Donald Trump won the electoral vote against Democratic nominee Hillary Clinton but lost the popular vote by more than 2 million votes.

Despite its intricacies, the Electoral College has served the American people for 237 years. Having broken away from the royal rule of Great Britain during the 18th century, the infant nation of America wasn’t in a hurry to live under a dictatorship. As a solution to electing a new leader and government, the Electoral College was conceived by America’s Founding Fathers at a time when the majority of the world’s countries didn’t hold democratic elections. Political pioneers such as George Washington and Alexander Hamilton debated a new way to elect a presidential leader during the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia in 1787. While many of the attending delegates wanted a congress to elect a president, others believed that a popular democratic vote should decide who was put into power. As a compromise between the two ideas, the Electoral College was born.

The Electoral College system was ratified with the Constitution in 1789. However, since then there have been a whole host of amendments that have changed who and how people vote for the president of the United States. For example, in 1804 the 12th Amendment to the Constitution changed the way that vice presidents were elected.

Originally, the position of vice president was held by the runner-up in the general election, who was seen as the second most qualified candidate for president. The 12th Amendment made it possible for the public to elect a vice president, rather than the position being automatically filled. In 1868 the 14th Amendment gave African Americans the right to vote, and the 19th Amendment gave women the right to vote in 1920. In 1971, the 26th Amendment lowered the voting age from 21 to 18 years old.

To date, there have been 46 US presidencies served by 45 men – this is due to President Grover Cleveland’s two nonconsecutive terms as the 22nd and 24th president. Only two women have ever been put forward as a presidential nominee. Hillary Clinton was the first female nominee during the 2016 election, and current vice president Kamala Harris is the second during the 2024 race. Could 2024 be the year that history is made with the first female to step into the iconic Oval Office as president of the United States? The world will find out after voting takes place on 5 November 2024 during the 60th quadrennial presidential election.

A CELEBRATION OF TOGETHERNESS

 Through community meals 

What's unique about Chandanki, a village in Gujarat? Here, food isn’t cooked in any house. Instead, food for everyone is prepared in one place, where all the residents gather to sit and eat together. This is Chandanki’s antidote to loneliness. 

With a majority of its youngsters migrating to cities in India and abroad, Chandanki was left with a large number of senior citizens. A decade earlier, it had a population of over a thousand, but today it has around 500 people, most of whom are between 55 and 85 years of age. Many of these elderly people would cook food once a day only. Also, elderly women who had health problems found it hard, if not impossible, to cook meals. 

To address these issues, a group of villagers started a community kitchen. For a small fee, Chandanki’s residents get access to two meals a day prepared by hired cooks. The lunch includes dal, rice, chapatti, sabzi and a dessert. For dinner, there is khichdi, kadhi, bhakri (rotis made from millet) and sabzi. Additionally, namkeen (which includes pakodas made from methi or fenugreek leaves), dhokla and idli-sambar are also served. 

The meals are eaten in a solarpowered air-conditioned hall adjacent to the community kitchen. The dining hall has thus emerged as a space where all the inhabitants of Chandanki gather together and share their joys and sorrows over their meals. During weekends, their grown-up children (who now reside in cities) come to Chandanki to visit them and they too join in the community meals. 

Interestingly, the sarpanch of the village, Poonambhai Patel, left his home in Ahmedabad and moved to Chandanki to supervise the community kitchen properly. The practice of cooking and consuming community meals is not just about food. It is also about strengthening the social fabric of a people and nurturing them. Chandanki’s future plans include constructing a park to further this feeling of togetherness among its inhabitants. 

FATHER OF MODERN GENETICS

Gregor Mendel

Gregor Mendel was an Austrian monk who discovered the basic principles of heredity through experiments in his garden.

Mendel’s observations became the foundation of modern genetics and the study of heredity, and he is widely considered as ‘The Father of Modern Genetics’.

Early Life 

Gregor Johann Mendel was born on July 22, 1822, to Anton and Rosine Mendel, on his family’s farm, in Heinzendorf, Austria. He spent his early youth in that rural setting. In 1840, he graduated from the secondary school in Troppau with honors.

Following his schooling, Mendel graduated from the Philosophical Institute of the University of Olmutz in 1843. That same year, against the wishes of his father, Mendel began studying to be a monk. He joined the Augustinian order at the St. Thomas Monastery.

Scientific Exposure

In 1851, he was sent to the University of Vienna, at the monastery’s expense, to continue his studies in the sciences. While there, Mendel studied mathematics and physics under Christian Doppler, after whom the Doppler effect of wave frequency is named.

He studied botany under Franz Unger, who had begun using a microscope in his studies.

In 1853, upon completing his studies at the University of Vienna, Mendel returned to the monastery in Brno and he began the experiments for which he is best known.

Experiments and Theories

Around 1854, Mendel began to do research on the transmission of hereditary traits in plant hybrids. Mendel’s research continued over as many as eight years and involved tens of thousands of individual plants.

Mendel chose to use peas for his experiments due to their many distinct varieties. After analyzing his results, he reached two of his most important conclusions: the Law of Segregation, which established that there are dominant and recessive traits which were passed on randomly from parents to offspring and the Law of Independent Assortment, which established that traits were passed on independently of other traits from parents to offspring.

In 1865, Mendel delivered two lectures on his findings to the Natural Science Society in Brno. Mendel did little to promote his work. The importance of his work was largely overlooked at that period.

Later life and Legacy

Gregor Mendel died on January 6, 1884, at the age of 61. His work, however, was still largely unknown.

But, decades later, Mendel’s research was recognized by several noted geneticists, botanists, and biologists conducting research on heredity. Its significance was more fully appreciated, and his studies began to be referred to as Mendel’s Laws. His research and theories are considered fundamental to any understanding of the field of genetics, and he is thus considered the ‘Father of Modern Genetics’.

A MARVEL OF ANCIENT INDIA

Rani ka Vav (The Queen’s Stepwell)

Hidden in the small town of Patan in Gujarat, India, lies Rani ka Vav (The Queen’s Stepwell), a breathtaking example of ancient Indian architecture and artistry. This incredible stepwell, built in the 11th century by Queen Udayamati in memory of her husband King Bhimdev I, is a UNESCO World Heritage Site and a symbol of India’s rich cultural heritage.

A Step Back in Time: Rani ka Vav is no ordinary well. Stretching 64 meters long, 20 meters wide, and 27 meters deep, this seven-story marvel showcases over 800 intricate sculptures and carvings. These artworks depict Gods, Goddesses and scenes from Hindu mythology, offering a fascinating glimpse into the past.

Architectural WonderThe design of the stepwell is a masterpiece of engineering. Its precise construction allows natural light and air to reach the deepest levels, creating a cool and serene environment. This ingenious use of space and resources highlights the advanced knowledge of ancient Indian builders.

Cultural Significance: Beyond its beauty, Rani ka Vav is a testament to the love and respect of Queen Udayamati for her husband. It also emphasizes the importance of women in history, showcasing the queen’s role in commissioning and overseeing this grand project. The stepwell reflects the prosperity and artistic flair of the Solanki dynasty.

Educational Treasure: For students, Rani ka Vav offers more than just a history lesson. It provides insights into ancient engineering, art and culture. Visiting or studying this stepwell can inspire appreciation for historical monuments and the importance of preserving them.

Rani ka Vav is not just a stepwell; it is a gateway to India’s glorious past. Each carving and structure tells a story, inviting us to explore and cherish our heritage. This magnificent stepwell stands as a reminder of our ancestors’ creativity and ingenuity, encouraging us to preserve such treasures for future generations.

KING OF THE PLANETS

 Jupiter 

Large enough to fit every other planet inside, it’s no surprise Jupiter holds the title of “King of the planets”.

Last year the European Space Agency sent the Jupiter Icy Moons Explorer (JUICE for short) on the long journey towards the planet, and this October NASA will launch the Europa Clipper to join it on its way. The trip will take five and a half years, because Jupiter lies around 484 million miles from the Sun – five times further away than Earth.

With its century-long storms, deadly radiation and a glittering assortment of moons, the solar system’s largest planet is a fascinating – and deadly – place to visit.

A giant gassy ball: Jupiter is around 86,881 miles wide and it contains more than twice as much mass as every other planet put together. The more material a planet has, the stronger its gravity. So, if you stood on a set of scales on Jupiter you would be nearly two and a half times heavier than you are on Earth. You wouldn’t be any bigger – the planet is just pulling down on you more.

You’d have a tough time standing anywhere on Jupiter though, because it’s a gas giant. The solar system’s inner planets – Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars – are mostly made of rock, but Jupiter is entirely made of its atmosphere.

The planet is about 90% hydrogen gas, the lightest known element in the universe. Most of the remaining 10% is helium, the gas used to fill balloons so they float. There are also trace amounts of other chemicals, such as water and ammonia (which is used on Earth to make plant fertilisers), which form Jupiter’s clouds.

Jupiter’s outer atmosphere is about 30 miles thick. Below this, there is a layer of hydrogen and helium 13,000 miles thick, which changes from gas to liquid as the depth and pressure increase. Under this lies a deep sea – 25,000 miles deep – of liquid metallic hydrogen.

Scientists don’t yet know if a solid surface exists on Jupiter, but if there is one, you wouldn’t be able to walk on it.

Stormy weather: If you looked at Jupiter through a large enough telescope, you’d see the planet has alternating brown and white stripes running from side to side. These are bands of swirling clouds, moving around the planet in opposite directions. The cream coloured stripes are known as “zones”, while the darker ones are called “belts”.

The belts and zones are created because Jupiter spins incredibly quickly. Pinning down exactly how long the gas giant takes to rotate – and the length of its day – is surprisingly complicated. Because it isn’t solid, different parts of the planet rotate at different speeds. While the equator zips around in just nine hours and 50 minutes, material at the poles takes six minutes longer to catch up. This rapid spinning creates strong currents in the atmosphere, which help create the planet’s distinctive belts and zones.

Dotted among these stripes are bright spots that are white or red. These are immense storms, which can last from a few days to decades. The biggest of them is called the Great Red Spot, and it has been a permanent fixture on the face of Jupiter for over 190 years.

Today, the Spot is 8,700 miles across, wide enough to swallow Earth whole. Violent winds roar at 425 miles per hour, more than double a Category 5 hurricane. The fastest winds, though, are at the poles, where storms whip gusts at over 900 miles per hour.

Jupiter’s most dangerous feature (to spacecraft, at least) is its magnetic field. Around 20,000 times stronger than Earth’s, the field traps charged particles and accelerates them towards the planet. When they strike the atmosphere they make it glow, creating beautiful aurorae (northern and southern lights), that ring the poles like a crown.

Visiting Jupiter: 

The trapped particles also create deadly radiation around the planet. The first spacecraft to visit Jupiter in the 1970s – Pioneer 10 and Pioneer 11 – avoided this by blazing past the planet at 78,000 miles per hour. They found the radiation was 100 times stronger than expected, and it fried several onboard instruments. The next visitors – Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 – in 1979, fared much better. They took 33,000 pictures of Jupiter and its moons, found the planet had a thin ring around its waist like Saturn, and also spotted a volcano erupting on one of Jupiter’s moons, Io.

Other spacecraft have passed the planet on their journeys elsewhere, such as New Horizons on its way to Pluto. Only two have stayed longer, surviving the radiation by spending most of their time at a safe distance from Jupiter and occasionally swinging in for a short visit.

The Galileo spacecraft orbited Jupiter from 1995 to 2003. It spotted bright flashes that turned out to be lightning strikes leaping between the clouds. It even dropped off a probe that fell through the planet’s atmosphere for 58 minutes before it was crushed by the intense pressure. Juno arrived in 2016 and is still watching over the mighty gas giant today. The spacecraft has been mapping out the strength of size of States.

Jupiter’s gravity and magnetic field, hoping to reveal more about what the planet looks like underneath the clouds. It also found evidence of helium rain falling through the layers deep in the atmosphere, where the pressure is so high that hydrogen and helium act like liquids.

A new hope for alien life: When JUICE and Europa Clipper arrive at Jupiter in the 2030s, however, their main focus will be on Jupiter’s moons, rather than the planet itself. Jupiter has 95 moons (that we know of, as new ones are still being discovered), but both missions will focus their attention on three – Europa, Ganymede and Callisto. Mostly made of water ice, each moon is thought to hide a liquid water ocean beneath its surface. On Earth, wherever there’s water there’s life, so the icy moons are great places to look for life beyond Earth.

Neither JUICE nor Europa Clipper are directly searching for alien lifeforms, but they will be looking for signs that the moons could be habitable (possible to live there). In doing so, astrobiologists (scientists who study the origins of life in the universe) hope to understand more about how life might have begun on our own planet and elsewhere in the galaxy.

Jupiter may be the King of the Solar System, but its moons are set to shine in the coming years. Will alien life be finally found in our solar system, hiding on one of Jupiter’s many moons? Watch this space!

Europa Clipper - a journey to an ocean world: NASA's Europa Clipper is set to launch in October 2024 and arrive at Jupiter in April 2030. The spacecraft hopes to unlock some of the secrets of the planet's icy moon Europa and find out if it is capable of hosting alien life. Here are five mysteries the mission is seeking to solve:

1 Salty ocean

The key question scientists want to answer is whether Europa has an ocean of salty water hidden beneath its icy surface, and if so, how big it is. Europa Clipper will use radar to survey under the moon's surface.

2 Ingredients for life

Although scientists are almost certain that a vast ocean lies under Europa's surface, they want to know if it has other essential ingredients for life. The spacecraft will search for these, and investigate whether they come from Europa's icy shell or from the moon's rocky interior.

3 Plumes of water

Water jets have been seen shooting into space from Europa's surface. Europa Clipper will search for these and attempt to fly through one of them to give scientists a glimpse into the ocean beneath.

4 Smooth surface

Europa's surface is the smoothest object in the solar system, with no impact craters. The spacecraft will study the moon's surface to understand what is keeping it so fresh-faced, and whether volcanoes or Jupiter's gravity could provide the energy for life.

5 Landing site

Future missions to Europa might want to land on the surface to study its ocean. During its mission, Europa Clipper will aim to map the moon's surface in detail, allowing NASA to locate the best landing spot.

THE FOLKTALE FROM MYANMAR

The Magic Powder

 

Once upon a time, in a little village on the banks of the Irrawaddy river, there lived a young woman called Thuza. She was very happily married to handsome young Theingi.

But there was one problem that nagged Thuza – her husband believed he was an alchemist and would spend all his time dreaming about ways to turn dirt into gold.

All day, and for days on end, Theingi spent his time in experiments, searching for a breakthrough. Soon, all their money was over, and young Thuza had to struggle to buy food for the two of them. She became very worried. 

“You should find a job soon,” she pleaded with her husband. “We cannot continue like this!”

But Theingi wouldn’t listen. 

“I’m on the verge of a breakthrough! Why do I have to work when we will be rich beyond our wildest dreams? We will soon be able to turn all the dirt we find into gold!”

Disheartened, Thuza approached her father, wise old Thet, for a solution. Thet was surprised when he heard that his son-in-law was an alchemist. He thought for a while and asked to see Theingi. Thuza returned home happily that day, for she knew her wise father would have a solution.

The next day, Theingi arrived at his father-in-law’s house, fully prepared for a scolding. He was taken by surprise when Thet took him aside and whispered, “When I was young like you, I was an alchemist too!”

The two of them spent the whole afternoon discussing Theingi’s work. Finally, the old man stood up and said, “Why Theingi, you’ve done everything exactly like I did when I was your age! You are definitely on the verge of a breakthrough! Congratulations! But you seem to be lacking one very important ingredient in your experiments. You will need this when you finally turn dirt to gold. Only recently did I discover this. But I am too old for this task. It requires enormous effort…”

“Then let me do it for you, Father!” cried Theingi. He was really excited. All his efforts would pay off at last. “Tell me what the ingredient is!”

“Good, you are excited!” said Thet. 

He leaned closer and whispered, “Son, the secret ingredient is a silver powder that is found only on banana leaves. You will have to plant the bananas yourself and cast certain spells on them. Then, as the plants grow, the powder on the leaves will gain magical powers.”

“How much of this powder will we need, Father?” asked Theingi excitedly.

“A kilo,” replied Thet.

“A kilo!” cried Theingi. “That would require hundreds of banana plants!”

“I’m afraid so, Son,” said the old man. “That is why I can’t complete the task myself…”

“Don’t lose heart, Father!” said Theingi. “I shall!”

Later that evening, the old man taught his son-in-law the magic spells and loaned him the money to start the work.

The very next day, Theingi bought a small field near his home and cleared it. Just as he had been instructed, he dug the ground himself and planted the saplings after carefully chanting the magic spells. Every day he went to the field and examined the saplings. He kept the weeds and pests away diligently. When the plants grew and bore fruit, he carefully collected the silver powder from the leaves and kept it safely in a box.

There was hardly any powder on each leaf, so Theingi had to buy more land and grow more bananas. But he was determined to do what was needed. It took him several years, but at the end of it all, he had managed to collect enough of the magic powder. He rushed to his father-in-law, excited as never before. He would soon be able to make gold from mere dirt!

“Father, finally… here is the kilo of magic powder!” he cried. The old man was filled with joy. “Wonderful!’’ he said. “Wonderful! You’ve done well, Theingi. I’m proud of you. Now I will show you how to turn dirt into gold. But first, let’s get Thuza. We need her help.” Theingi was a little puzzled, but without losing any time, he ran to his wife and was soon back with her.

“Thuza,” asked the old man, “what did you do with the bananas when your husband was collecting the powder?”

“Why, I sold them, Father,” replied Thuza. “That’s how we earned a living.”

“Then you must have been able to save some money too. Theingi grew more than enough bananas…” the old man continued.

“Yes, I did,” replied Thuza.

“Can we see it?” asked Thet.

“Of course, I have kept it safely at home,” beamed Thuza.

The three of them went to Theingi’s house where Thuza produced several bags from the loft where she had kept them safely. Thet opened one of the bags, peered inside, and smiled. He then emptied one of the bags on the table. Gold coins tinkled as they fell in a huge, shiny heap. Then he went to the field and came back with a handful of dirt, which he placed next to the heap of gold. 

“You see, Theingi,” he said, turning to his son-in-law, “you have changed dirt into gold!”

Never after that day did Theingi collect any more magic powder from the leaves. But he continued to grow bananas. His “alchemist” father-in-law had taught him the best way to turn dirt into gold, after all. He didn’t need the magic powder any more.