A BIRD-WATCHER'S PARADISE

Keoladeo National Park

India is privileged to have a national park that is acknowledged as one of the world’s most important bird breeding and feeding grounds. This is the Keoladeo National Park, formerly known as the Bharatpur Bird Sanctuary, where hundreds of exotic migratory birds from faraway Siberia, Central Asia, and Africa arrive to spend the winter.

The park, spanning an area of 29 sq km in the Bharatpur district of Rajasthan, about 55 km west of Agra and 175 km southwest of Delhi, occupies a strategic location in the middle of the Central Asian migratory flyway and also has abundant water. These two factors have caused it to become an internationally important region where birds migrating down the Central Asian flyway congregate before dispersing to other regions.

This park is the only known wintering site of the central population of the critically endangered Siberian crane. It also serves as a wintering area for other globally threatened species such as the greaterspotted eagle and imperial eagle.

Originally a private hunting ground of the Maharaja of Bharatpur, the site was notified as a bird sanctuary in 1956. In 1982, it was elevated to the status of a national park and renamed after the Keoladeo temple, an ancient temple dedicated to Lord Shiva that stands at the centre of the site. The same year, it was designated as a Ramsar site(wetland of international importance under the Ramsar Convention). 

In 1985, the Keoladeo NationalPark was listed as a World Heritage Site by UNESCO.

Today, it not only is a haven for birdwatchers and nature enthusiasts, but also serves as an important research and conservation centre for ornithologists and ecologists. The park has an interesting history. The area where it stands was originally a natural depression that was inundated when Maharaja Suraj Mal, the ruler of the then princely state of Bharatpur, constructed a bund at the confluence of the Gambhir and Banganga rivers between 1726 and 1763 to prevent floods in his capital. This resulted in the development of an area comprising lakes and ponds, woodlands, wetlands and marshes with a lot of aquatic vegetation that attracted numerous migratory birds. 

It was subsequently designated as the ruler’s private duck-hunting reserve for the use of the royal family and their colonial visitors, and was later formally inaugurated in 1901 by Lord Curzon, the then Viceroy of India. As per an inscription found on a pillar near the temple, the then Viceroy, Lord Linlithgow, set a record on November 12, 1938 by shooting 4,273 birds here in a single day. 

Even after the site was turned over to the Forestry department, the Maharaja continued to retain shooting rights until 1972, when the Wildlife (Protection) Act was passed, prohibiting hunting.

With a wide diversity of habitats ranging from marshes, woodlands, scrublands, and grasslands to denuded saline patches, the park supports an amazing variety of plant and animal species. One third of the habitat is wetland with varying types of micro habitats having trees, mounds, dykes, and open water with or without submerged or emergent plants. The remaining terrain consists of tropical dry deciduous forest, scrub woodland, and dry grassland. More than 370 species of birds have been recorded in the park, the most common being the gadwall, shoveler, spotbill, common teal, lesser whistling duck, tufted duck, comb duck, cotton pygmy-goose, great cormorant, little cormorant, Indian shag, ruff, painted stork, white spoonbill, Asian open billed stork, black-headed ibis, oriental darter, common sandpiper, wood sandpiper and green sandpiper. 

Apart from the birds for which itis renowned, the Keoladeo National Park is also home to about 30 species of mammals, including the chital, sambar, nilgai, blackbuck, rhesus macaque, wild boar, Bengal fox, jackal, striped hyena, common palm civet, small Indian civet, crested porcupine, and Indian hare; 13 species of snakes including the python, cobra, krait and Russell’s viper; 5 lizards; 7turtles; and 7 amphibians.

COMBATING POLLUTION

Space debris

Space above Earth is turning progressively crowded. Space debris, or orbital debris, refers to the accumulation of non-operational items around Earth’s orbit, including old satellites, rocket stages that no longer operate, and pieces from collisions or explosions. As the number of space constellations and exploration grows at a never-before-seen rate, one question becomes important about space junk: This debris itself poses a great degree of danger to operational satellites, space missions, and other future exploratory undertakings. In these respects, battling orbital pollution is actually of the essence in order to guarantee that space operations are sustained appropriately for future generations.

Space debris refers to any human-made object that is no longer serving its functional purpose but still in Earth’s orbit. The sizes vary from tiny paint flecks to large and derelict satellites. The majority of the debris is housed in what is termed the Low Earth Orbit, which extends up to 2,000 kilometers above Earth’s surface. It is, particularly, pretty congested, as it is where most of the satellite operations take place: communication, Earth observation, and scientific research, among others. Some of the reasons why such buildups of space debris occur include the following: failed spacecraft, spent rocket stages, and fragments from explosions or collisions. The first significant awareness of the problem was the collision between the defunct Russian satellite Kosmos-2251 and an operational Iridium communications satellite back in 2009, adding several thousand fragments of debris into LEO. Since that accident happened, things have only gotten worse due to the increased number of launches.

Space debris poses a number of different risks to current and future space operations. Active satellites, space stations, and manned missions face the risk of being hit by debris with velocity mostly exceeding the speed of 28,000 kilometers per hour. In such great speed, even small fragments may cause serious damage: a paint chip is able to puncture the surface of a spacecraft, and collision with a big piece can destroy the whole satellite, thus contributing to the problem of debris. The Kessler Syndrome (1978), theorized by NASA scientist Donald Kessler, is an exponential growth cascade where space debris collides with satellites and other debris, creating fragments that collide further until possibly rendering parts of space unusable for decades or longer. Not yet collective, the Kessler Syndrome is a reason for concern due to the growing density of objects in LEO, which should be met with proactive measures.

Recently, the efforts to reduce space debris have been gaining momentum. Most of the efforts now go toward prevention rather than removal of debris. International guidelines such as those by UNOOSA and IADC, for instance, recommend designing satellites in such a way that they can deorbit no longer than 25 years after the end of their mission. This is often done by lowering their orbits so their re-entry into the atmosphere causes them to burn up. 

In addition, satellite operators are also summoned to carry out end-of-life maneuvers that safely remove those spacecraft from operational orbits. For geostationary satellites, that normally includes separation in a “graveyard orbit,” a place far away from the critical orbital zones where those defunct satellites can stay in without interfering with operational spacecraft.

While prevention is paramount, guidelines and best practices alone cannot solve the issue of the already existing debris.

ANCIENT LANGUAGES RICH IN LITERATURE

Classical Languages

The Union Cabinet has recently approved giving the status of ‘classical language’ to five more languages - Marathi, Bengali, Pali, Prakrit, and Assamese. With this cabinet decision, the number of languages that have the status will nearly double from six to 11. The languages that had the tag earlier were Tamil, Sanskrit, Telugu, Kannada, Malayalam, and Odia. Tamil was granted the status in 2004 and the last language to get it was Odia, in 2014. Prakrit and Pali are two distinct languages that have been derived from Sanskrit.

What is the criteria for a language to be recognised as classical?

The following criteria have to be met:

● High antiquity of the language’s early texts/recorded history over a period of 1,500-2,000 years.

● A body of ancient literature/texts, which is considered a heritage by generations of speakers.

● Knowledge texts, especially prose texts in addition to poetry, epigraphical and inscriptional evidence.

● The classical languages and literature could be distinct from their current form or could be discontinuous with later forms of their offshoots.

CAMPAIGNS, VOTES AND ELECTIONS

To elect the President of America

Every four years, US citizens cast their vote for the person they think should hold the coveted position of president of their country.

In 2024, another election is on the horizon, when the nation will decide if Democratic nominee Kamala Harris or Republican Donald Trump will be the next president to hold office. At the ballot box, Americans make their decision on who they think should be the next person to run the country. However, they’re not directly voting for the next president. Instead, they’re voting for members of the Electoral College, called ‘electors’, whose job it is to elect the president and the vice president. According to the American Constitution, electors can’t be members of Congress or hold federal office and are elected by political parties.

Each state has its own number of electors, based on the state’s resident population. The more citizens in the state, the more electors that state holds. For example, California has more than 40 million inhabitants and 55 electors, whereas Wyoming only has around 500,000 residents and just three electors. All but two states have a winner-takes-all policy, where all the state’s electoral votes are given to the candidate that wins the state’s popular vote. Maine and Nebraska differ by distributing electors within their congressional districts, along with two ‘at-large’ electoral votes based on the overall state-wide popular vote. Electors often pledge to their states to vote for the same presidential nominee as the result of their state’s popular vote. However, that hasn’t always been the case. There have been 157 ‘faithless electors’ who, when faced with casting their electoral vote, have chosen an alternative candidate. There have been several reasons why an elector has changed their vote, including the death of a nominee, a change in candidate within the same party or, in one case, by accident. In 1796, a Federalist elector from Pennsylvania intentionally switched their vote from Federalist nominee John Adams to Democratic-Republican Thomas Jefferson.

All in all, there are 538 electors across the country – equal to the number of House Representatives and Congress members – and a further three votes for the District of Columbia, that decide the next president. The candidate with more than half of the votes (270) wins the presidency. If on the rare occasion a single candidate doesn’t get more than 270 votes, then the House of Representatives elects the president. The two-stage voting system of the Electoral College can result in a unique situation where a candidate can win the votes of the electors, despite not winning the popular vote from all 50 states. For example, in 2016 Donald Trump won the electoral vote against Democratic nominee Hillary Clinton but lost the popular vote by more than 2 million votes.

Despite its intricacies, the Electoral College has served the American people for 237 years. Having broken away from the royal rule of Great Britain during the 18th century, the infant nation of America wasn’t in a hurry to live under a dictatorship. As a solution to electing a new leader and government, the Electoral College was conceived by America’s Founding Fathers at a time when the majority of the world’s countries didn’t hold democratic elections. Political pioneers such as George Washington and Alexander Hamilton debated a new way to elect a presidential leader during the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia in 1787. While many of the attending delegates wanted a congress to elect a president, others believed that a popular democratic vote should decide who was put into power. As a compromise between the two ideas, the Electoral College was born.

The Electoral College system was ratified with the Constitution in 1789. However, since then there have been a whole host of amendments that have changed who and how people vote for the president of the United States. For example, in 1804 the 12th Amendment to the Constitution changed the way that vice presidents were elected.

Originally, the position of vice president was held by the runner-up in the general election, who was seen as the second most qualified candidate for president. The 12th Amendment made it possible for the public to elect a vice president, rather than the position being automatically filled. In 1868 the 14th Amendment gave African Americans the right to vote, and the 19th Amendment gave women the right to vote in 1920. In 1971, the 26th Amendment lowered the voting age from 21 to 18 years old.

To date, there have been 46 US presidencies served by 45 men – this is due to President Grover Cleveland’s two nonconsecutive terms as the 22nd and 24th president. Only two women have ever been put forward as a presidential nominee. Hillary Clinton was the first female nominee during the 2016 election, and current vice president Kamala Harris is the second during the 2024 race. Could 2024 be the year that history is made with the first female to step into the iconic Oval Office as president of the United States? The world will find out after voting takes place on 5 November 2024 during the 60th quadrennial presidential election.

A CELEBRATION OF TOGETHERNESS

 Through community meals 

What's unique about Chandanki, a village in Gujarat? Here, food isn’t cooked in any house. Instead, food for everyone is prepared in one place, where all the residents gather to sit and eat together. This is Chandanki’s antidote to loneliness. 

With a majority of its youngsters migrating to cities in India and abroad, Chandanki was left with a large number of senior citizens. A decade earlier, it had a population of over a thousand, but today it has around 500 people, most of whom are between 55 and 85 years of age. Many of these elderly people would cook food once a day only. Also, elderly women who had health problems found it hard, if not impossible, to cook meals. 

To address these issues, a group of villagers started a community kitchen. For a small fee, Chandanki’s residents get access to two meals a day prepared by hired cooks. The lunch includes dal, rice, chapatti, sabzi and a dessert. For dinner, there is khichdi, kadhi, bhakri (rotis made from millet) and sabzi. Additionally, namkeen (which includes pakodas made from methi or fenugreek leaves), dhokla and idli-sambar are also served. 

The meals are eaten in a solarpowered air-conditioned hall adjacent to the community kitchen. The dining hall has thus emerged as a space where all the inhabitants of Chandanki gather together and share their joys and sorrows over their meals. During weekends, their grown-up children (who now reside in cities) come to Chandanki to visit them and they too join in the community meals. 

Interestingly, the sarpanch of the village, Poonambhai Patel, left his home in Ahmedabad and moved to Chandanki to supervise the community kitchen properly. The practice of cooking and consuming community meals is not just about food. It is also about strengthening the social fabric of a people and nurturing them. Chandanki’s future plans include constructing a park to further this feeling of togetherness among its inhabitants. 

FATHER OF MODERN GENETICS

Gregor Mendel

Gregor Mendel was an Austrian monk who discovered the basic principles of heredity through experiments in his garden.

Mendel’s observations became the foundation of modern genetics and the study of heredity, and he is widely considered as ‘The Father of Modern Genetics’.

Early Life 

Gregor Johann Mendel was born on July 22, 1822, to Anton and Rosine Mendel, on his family’s farm, in Heinzendorf, Austria. He spent his early youth in that rural setting. In 1840, he graduated from the secondary school in Troppau with honors.

Following his schooling, Mendel graduated from the Philosophical Institute of the University of Olmutz in 1843. That same year, against the wishes of his father, Mendel began studying to be a monk. He joined the Augustinian order at the St. Thomas Monastery.

Scientific Exposure

In 1851, he was sent to the University of Vienna, at the monastery’s expense, to continue his studies in the sciences. While there, Mendel studied mathematics and physics under Christian Doppler, after whom the Doppler effect of wave frequency is named.

He studied botany under Franz Unger, who had begun using a microscope in his studies.

In 1853, upon completing his studies at the University of Vienna, Mendel returned to the monastery in Brno and he began the experiments for which he is best known.

Experiments and Theories

Around 1854, Mendel began to do research on the transmission of hereditary traits in plant hybrids. Mendel’s research continued over as many as eight years and involved tens of thousands of individual plants.

Mendel chose to use peas for his experiments due to their many distinct varieties. After analyzing his results, he reached two of his most important conclusions: the Law of Segregation, which established that there are dominant and recessive traits which were passed on randomly from parents to offspring and the Law of Independent Assortment, which established that traits were passed on independently of other traits from parents to offspring.

In 1865, Mendel delivered two lectures on his findings to the Natural Science Society in Brno. Mendel did little to promote his work. The importance of his work was largely overlooked at that period.

Later life and Legacy

Gregor Mendel died on January 6, 1884, at the age of 61. His work, however, was still largely unknown.

But, decades later, Mendel’s research was recognized by several noted geneticists, botanists, and biologists conducting research on heredity. Its significance was more fully appreciated, and his studies began to be referred to as Mendel’s Laws. His research and theories are considered fundamental to any understanding of the field of genetics, and he is thus considered the ‘Father of Modern Genetics’.

A MARVEL OF ANCIENT INDIA

Rani ka Vav (The Queen’s Stepwell)

Hidden in the small town of Patan in Gujarat, India, lies Rani ka Vav (The Queen’s Stepwell), a breathtaking example of ancient Indian architecture and artistry. This incredible stepwell, built in the 11th century by Queen Udayamati in memory of her husband King Bhimdev I, is a UNESCO World Heritage Site and a symbol of India’s rich cultural heritage.

A Step Back in Time: Rani ka Vav is no ordinary well. Stretching 64 meters long, 20 meters wide, and 27 meters deep, this seven-story marvel showcases over 800 intricate sculptures and carvings. These artworks depict Gods, Goddesses and scenes from Hindu mythology, offering a fascinating glimpse into the past.

Architectural WonderThe design of the stepwell is a masterpiece of engineering. Its precise construction allows natural light and air to reach the deepest levels, creating a cool and serene environment. This ingenious use of space and resources highlights the advanced knowledge of ancient Indian builders.

Cultural Significance: Beyond its beauty, Rani ka Vav is a testament to the love and respect of Queen Udayamati for her husband. It also emphasizes the importance of women in history, showcasing the queen’s role in commissioning and overseeing this grand project. The stepwell reflects the prosperity and artistic flair of the Solanki dynasty.

Educational Treasure: For students, Rani ka Vav offers more than just a history lesson. It provides insights into ancient engineering, art and culture. Visiting or studying this stepwell can inspire appreciation for historical monuments and the importance of preserving them.

Rani ka Vav is not just a stepwell; it is a gateway to India’s glorious past. Each carving and structure tells a story, inviting us to explore and cherish our heritage. This magnificent stepwell stands as a reminder of our ancestors’ creativity and ingenuity, encouraging us to preserve such treasures for future generations.