Converting power into motion

ENGINES 

Watt Steam Engine 

Engines are machines that are used to change any form of energy into mechanical energy. Mechanical energy is the energy that moves an object. The different types of energy sources are potential energy, heat energy, electrical energy, chemical energy and nuclear energy. 

Steam Engine 

Steam Engines: The first steam engines were developed by Thomas Newcomen in 1731. They were the 'atmospheric' design, which means that atmospheric pressure at the top of the piston pushed it down, lifting the work object. During the Industrial Revolution, the Watt steam engine was developed sporadically from 1763 to 1775 by James Watt and Matthew Boulton. It was the first steam engine to use steam at a pressure just above atmospheric pressure to move the piston. This enabled the development of semi-automated factories in places where waterpower was not available. Development later also led to steam locomotives and the expansion of railway transportation. 

Industrial Steam Engine

Electric Motors: Electric Motors convert electrical energy into mechanical energy. These motors work through the interaction between the motor's magnetic field and electric current in a wire to generate force, which is applied on the motor. They are used in Industrial fans, blowers, pumps, vehicles and household appliances. 

Autoutomobile engine 

Automobiles: Karl Benz developed the first commercially successful automobile. His Benz Patent Motorcar in 1885 is considered the first practical automobile and the first car put into serious production. This automobile had wire wheels with a four-stroke engine of his own design, a very advanced coil ignition and an evaporative cooling system. In 1896, Benz was granted a patent for his design of the first flat engine with horizontally opposing pistons. The pistons moved in horizontal cylinders and reached the top centre simultaneously balancing each other with respect to momentum. This design was used in the Volkswagen Beetle, Citroën 2CV cars, some Porsche cars and Subaru cars.

External Combustion Engine: An external combustion engine is a type of heat engine where the internal working fluid is heated by combustion of an external source through a wall or heat exchanger. The fluid expands and acts on the mechanism of the engine to produce motion and usable work. The fluid is then cooled, compressed and reused or dumped. 

Internal Combustion Engines: Internal Combustion Engines are a type of heat engine where the combustion of fuel occurs with an oxidiser like air in a combustion chamber. This type of engine is used in vehicles. In such engines, fuel, which is a form of chemical energy, is burned. This generates heat, which causes the gases to expand and push down on the pistons in the engine, doing work. The first commercially successful internal combustion engine was created by Etienne Lenoir in 1860 and the first modern internal combustion engine was developed by Nicolaus Otto in 1876.

There are many types of internal combustion engines. They can be grouped in terms of fuel, cycle and configuration. They are typically powered by fossil fuels like natural gas or petroleum derivatives like gasoline, diesel or fuel oil. 

There are three different types of cycles. 

● Two-stroke engines produce power once for every turn of the engine. 

● Four-stroke engine cylinders produce power once for every two turns of the engine. 

● Six-stroke engine cylinders produce power once for every six turns of the engine. 

Cylinders are made of pistons and crankshaft. Any number of cylinders can be used and arranged in many configurations like a straight line, at an angle or in a circle. 

Engines in India: Cooper Corporation was the first company to manufacture diesel engines in India. Some of the best engines made in India include the Nissan 1.3-litre Turbo-Petrol, Mahindra's 1.2-litre Turbo-Petrol (mStallion) and Mahindra's 1.5-litre Turbo-Diesel. 

The magnetic marvel

FERROFLUID 

In the realm of cool and mind-bending science, there’s a substance that’s capturing the imagination of scientists and enthusiasts alike --- ferrofluid. It sounds like something out of a sci-fi movie, but this magnetic marvel is very real and has some amazing properties that make it a star in the world of material science. 

What is ferrofluid?

Ferrofluid is a special liquid that behaves in a way that seems almost magical. It’s made up of tiny magnetic particles --- usually iron compounds that are super tiny, just 10 nanometres in size --- mixed in a carrier fluid, often oil. What's really cool about ferrofluid is that it can respond to magnetic fields without clumping together. 

Unlike regular magnets, ferrofluid isn’t magnetic on its own. It becomes magnetized only when exposed to a magnetic field, transforming itself from a smooth liquid to a spiky, hedgehog-like form. When you bring a magnet close to ferrofluid, it comes to life, forming dynamic, spiky shapes that seem to dance to an invisible magnetic tune. 

The magic of ferrofluid lies in the balance between magnetism and liquid properties. The tiny iron particles are so small that they remain suspended in the liquid, thanks to Brownian motion, which is the random movement of particles in a fluid. When a magnet is brought near, these tiny magnets align with the magnetic field, creating those mesmerising spikes and patterns. 

Ferrofluid isn’t just for fancy science experiments. It actually has some practical uses in different industries:

● It is used in speakers to cool down the voice coils and prevent overheating, ensuring they don't overheat during use.

● Researchers have even built speakers filled with ferrofluid that generates sound by vibrating the particles with electromagnetic coils. This allows for unique sound effects and spatial audio experiences. 

● It finds applications in creating leak-proof seals for machinery that adjusts based on the magnetic field. This prevents dust and debris from entering delicate machinery. 

● NASA explored using ferrofluid to control fuel movement in spacecraft during microgravity conditions, though this application hasn't yet reached space. 

● There’s ongoing research for using ferrofluid in targeted drug delivery to specific areas in the body to improve treatment accuracy and minimise side effects. 

● Ferrofluids can also be found in hard drives. 

● Besides its scientific uses, ferrofluid has become a star in art and entertainment. Artists use it to craft mesmerising sculpture and interactive displays that respond to magnets. You can find ferrofluid displays in science museums, art installations and even in certain electronic gadgets. 

In the end, ferrofluid shows how science can blend with creativity. While you might not be working with ferrofluid in everyday classes, who knows  --- maybe one day you'll find yourself creating the next generation of ferrofluid art or contributing to its innovative applications. The world of science is full of surprises, and ferrofluid is a shining example of how fascinating it can be!

History

WHY IS THE RED FORT AT DELHI SELECTED FOR THE INDEPENDENCE CEREMONY?

The Red Fort built by the Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan was the seat of Bahadur Shah Zafar, the last Mughal Emperor, when he was declared the Emperor of Hindustan during the 1857 uprising against the British. 

Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose, head of the exiled Azad Hind Sena, wished to hoist the flag of free India from the Red Fort. 

It was therefore, in a symbolic meeting of past on the ramparts of the Red Fort, that on 15th August, 1947, India ushered in a new dawn and the promise of a new beginning. 

Gypsum crystal

DESERT ROSE

The desert rose is neither soft nor fragrant. In fact, it is not a flower at all but a gypsum crystal. Do you know what gypsum is? It is a mineral used in the creation of concrete, sheet-rock and plaster of paris. In the desert, gypsum crystals are found in sand dunes. The grains of sand interfere with the growth of crystals and the result is that the crystals are formed in the shape of petals. Desert Rose gypsum is found in many locations around the world and specimens found in different places can look radically different, but all of them are without doubt delicate beauties born of the earth. 

Strange grief ritual

FINGER AMPUTATION

Have you ever been so overcome with grief that you just need to cut off a piece of your finger? Hopefully not. But for the people of Dani Tribe, finger cutting is a typical mourning practice. 

Located in a remote area of Papua, New Guinea, the Dani are deeply attached to their customs --- even the ones that encourage detachment of body parts. When someone dies, the tribe will cut off a portion of every woman's finger who was close to the deceased. The more loss a woman experiences, the more she loses of herself, literally.

Before being amputated, the fingers are tied with a string for thirty minutes to numb them. Once amputated, the new fingertips are burned to create new scar tissue. Though now banned by the government, this custom, one of the world's most bizarre cultural practices, is still occasionally practiced by the tribe from time to time. It is a ritual performed to satisfy the ancestral ghosts and has been going on for many generations.

Though mostly applicable to older women, the practice sometimes goes down all the way to baby females who have the tips of their fingers bitten off in a similar ritual.

Pole used for communication

TOTEM POLE

Totem poles are large wooden poles that are beautifully carved with many symbols. The totem pole of the Red Indians, provided a means of communicating their stories, myths and legends. They were generally carved from giant trees and were made up of an arrangement of symbols. The symbols on the totem pole told a story or recalled an event. These messages and stories tell a lot about the Red Indians and their culture. 

Some poles were erected to celebrate cultural beliefs, others were just an artistic presentation. Certain poles also contained graves within them. But whatever their purpose, totem poles are awesome. 

Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity

MAHA KUMBH 2025

The Maha Kumbh Mela, an integral part of Indian tradition, is renowned globally as the largest peaceful congregation of people. The festival is a testament to the human quest for divine and spiritual liberation, representing the belief in freedom from the continuous cycle of birth, death and rebirth. This gathering allows millions of devotees to immerse themselves in the holy waters of Ganga, Yamuna and the mythical Saraswati, symbolising the purification of the soul and as believed, a path to attaining Moksha or liberation. 

The Amrut snan / Shahi snan (Royal bath) has gained global recognition. It is not just a religious gathering anymore; it has become a spectacle of faith, a cultural extravaganza, attracting not just devotees, but also tourists, researchers and international media. The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) has inscribed the Kumbh Mela on the Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity, further elevating its status globally. 

The word Prayag has traditionally meant 'a confluence of rivers'. For Prayagraj, it denotes the physical meeting point of the Ganga and the Yamuna in the city. According to ancient belief a third river, the invisible Saraswati, also meets here with the Ganga and the Yamuna.  It is believed that Lord Brahma performed the very first sacrifice (yagya) at this place. 

Triveni sangam (or simply sangam) is a more frequently used name for the confluence. Prayagraj meaning the king of prayagas, is used as a term to indicate that this confluence is the most splendid one of the five sacred confluences in India - the holy grounds for the Kumbh. 

The Kumbh Mela is the largest and the most sacred fair of all which takes place once in 12 years at Prayagraj. This year it is being celebrated from January 13, 2025 to February 26, 2025. A sea of humanity lands up here for a dip in the rivers. The mega fair is a melting point of beliefs and ethnicities, drawing lakhs of Indians and foreigners alike. The people also come to seek spiritual solace.

According to legends , at the time of creation, the devas (gods) and asuras (demons) churned the ocean until the kumbh (pot) of amrit, the nectar of immortality, appeared. A fierce battle for the kumbh ensued, between the devas and asuras. During the 12 days (12 years in human life) struggle over the kumbh, four drops fell on earth, in four different places, and every three years there is a mela (festival) at one of these places to commemorate the devas’ victory in wresting the kumbh from the asuras. It is a victory of light over dark; truth over ignorance; positivity over negativity. 

Monday, January 13, marked the first day of 45­day long Maha Kumbh in Prayagraj, listed by UNESCO as the largest peaceful congregation of pilgrims on earth, where devotees walk miles to take a dip at 'Sangam', the convergence of the holy rivers Ganga and Yamuna and the mythical Saraswati. The fair is visited by Hindu ascetics, saints, ash­ smeared Naga Sadhus, skeleton­-donning, Aghoris and other pilgrims. It is expected to have a footfall of 450 million this year, nearly twice the population of Uttar Pradesh, India’s most populous State. 

Kumbh, derived from a Sanskrit word which means a pitcher, is rotationally held every three years at the four riverside cities of Prayagraj, Haridwar, Ujjain and Nasik. Its schedule is based on the planetary alignments mainly of that of Sun and Jupiter. The Ardh (half) is held every six years at Haridwar and Prayagraj while Purna (complete) Kumbh takes place in all four cities every 12 years. The Maha Kumbh happens after 12 Purna Kumbhs in Prayagraj, once in 144years and is considered the most auspicious. The central ritual of the fair remains bathing in icy cold waters of the sacred rivers where millions immerse themselves with the belief that the act will cleanse them of their sins and liberate them from the cycle of birth and death and will attain spiritual liberation.