Trains or trailers of the animal kingdom

 CENTIPEDE AND MILLIPEDE

Trains or trailers of the animal kingdom, centipedes and millipedes, both belonging to the class Myriapoda, are arthropods with fascinating mechanisms.

Despite their similar segmented bodies and numerous legs, these two creatures exhibit distinct styles of movement, driven by their differing anatomies and evolutionary adaptations. Understanding how centipedes and millipedes move provides insight into the complexities of their behaviour, ecology, and evolutionary history.

A 'hundred' legs: With their flat bodies and typically fewer legs (ranging from 15 to 191 pairs), centipedes are fast, agile predators. Their locomotion is characterised by a smooth, sinuous, and coordinated movement, which allows them to navigate quickly through their environments, usually in search of prey. Centipedes have one pair of legs per body segment, and their movement is primarily powered by alternating waves of leg movements.

The key to centipede locomotion is the coordination of their legs. When a centipede moves, the legs on one side of the body move in a synchronised fashion, followed by the legs on the opposite side. This creates a wave-like movement that propels the centipede forward. The legs move in a complex, sinusoidal pattern that provides stability and speed.

Each segment of the centipede's body is highly flexible, allowing it to bend and twist as it moves, helping it navigate through tight spaces, such as cracks and under debris.

Centipedes rely on their speed and agility to capture prey, typically small insects and other invertebrates. The rapid, coordinated movement is enhanced by the centipede's specialised legs in the front, which are modified into venomous fangs that immobilise their prey.

Power in a 'million': In contrast to centipedes, millipedes have cylindrical bodies and typically more legs, with some species having up to 400 pairs, which are spread across a greater number of body segments, with two pairs of legs per segment. This anatomy results in a different style of movement compared to centipedes. Millipedes are slower movers, and their primary defence mechanism is not speed, but rather their ability to secrete toxic fluids to deter predators. Millipede locomotion involves a more deliberate, wave-like pattern, but with a distinct rhythm due to their two pairs of legs per segment.

As they move, the pairs of legs on one side of their body alternate with the corresponding pairs on the opposite side. This coordinated movement generates a smooth, undulating motion that helps millipedes crawl along the ground. Unlike centipedes, millipedes do not rely on flexibility to the same degree.

Instead, their cylindrical bodies roll in a way that allows the legs to move in a synchronised, coordinated fashion, propelling the millipede slowly forward.

This slower, more methodical movement is suited to the millipede's herbivorous diet, as they typically feed on decaying plant material and detritus, moving through leaf litter and soil in search of food. Their legs, though numerous, are not designed for rapid bursts of speed, but instead for providing a stable, efficient movement across the substrate.

Evolutionary adaptations: The contrasting locomotion strategies of centipedes and millipedes reflect their evolutionary niches. Centipedes are evolved to be fast and efficient predators, with their quick, coordinated leg movements aiding in capturing prey. Millipedes, on the other hand, are adapted for slower, deliberate movements, which are more suited to their role as decomposers.

Over millions of years, both creatures have evolved intricate ways of using their many legs to navigate through their environments, but the differences in their locomotion highlight the diverse strategies that arthropods use to survive and thrive in their respective habitats. There are nearly 3,000 known species of centipedes, and over 12,000 millipede species, making both creatures evolutionary success stories.

First woman Prime Minister in the world

SIRIMAVO BANDARNAIKE

Sirimavo Bandarnaike became the first woman Prime Minister in the world, when she was chosen to head the government of Ceylon (now Sri Lanka) in 1960, following the assassination of her husband. 

Sirimavo Bandarnaike was born in 1916, to an aristocratic family. She was married to Solomon Bandarnaike in 1940 when he was a minister in the government of Ceylon, then a British colony. Solomon Bandarnaike became the Prime Minister of Ceylon in 1956. In the same year, he was assassinated. Then, Sirimavo Bandarnaike became the leader of the Sri Lanka Freedom Party. And, in July 1960, she became the first woman Prime Minister in the world. Her party lost the 1965 elections. 

Sirimavo Bandarnaike was back as the Prime Minister in 1970 elections. Her second term was difficult, with a rebellion in 1971, as well as the establishment of a new republican constitution in 1972. She was deprived of her civil rights in 1980. In 1994, she was re-elected as Prime Minister. Her daughter, Chandrika Kumaratunga, who was also briefly Prime Minister in 1994, later became the President. 

Do you know

WHY DO MEDICINES COME IN DIFFERENT FORM?

Medicine is given in different forms because of the necessity for convenience or speed. It can be given by mouth (orally) in the form of tablets, capsules or draughts. It can be inhaled in the form of gases, fine aerosols, or very rarely, exceedingly fine powder. Injections of medicines are given subcutaneously (beneath the skin), intramuscularly or intravenously. Sometimes solid implants in the form of tablets may be placed subcutaneously. Injections may also be given in the spine or brain. 

Medicines can be given through the rectum as solids or enemas. Finally, they are solutions, powders, creams and ointments which are placed locally on the skin. 

Convenient medicines are those which can be taken or administered easily by the patient himself. Oral medicines and inhalation are convenient and a great deal of research is carried out to make these more palatable. 

Manufacturers prefer oral preparations because they can be attractively coloured and flavoured and made impressively mysterious in size and shape. They can also be code-stamped or named for identification. Injections have to be sterile and kept in appropriate containers and are therefore relatively expensive. 

A steadfast companion in humanity's journey of self-expression and discovery

PEN 

Few tools have wielded as much influence as the humble pen. From its ancient origins to its modern iterations, the pen has been an indispensable instrument of communication, creativity, and cultural expression. 

Let us explore its rich history, significance, and enduring relevance in an ever-changing world.

The story of the pen begins at the dawn of civilization, where early humans sought to record thoughts, transactions, and stories. 

In ancient Mesopotamia, around 3200 BCE, cuneiform writing emerged on clay tablets, inscribed with reed or bone styluses. These rudimentary tools laid the foundation for more sophisticated instruments, capturing day-today records and marking the beginning of written culture.

As civilizations flourished, the need for better writing tools grew. 

The ancient Egyptians refined writing with papyrus scrolls and reed pens, enabling smoother, more legible writing and pre-serving religious texts, legal documents, and creative works. Meanwhile, in China, brushes made of animal hair or plant fibres yielded elegant calligraphy, demonstrating how writing could transcend functionality into artistic expression.

The Renaissance, a period of cultural and intellectual revival, spurred advancements in writing instruments. 

The metal-nibbed pen, introduced in the 19th century, replaced quills and reeds, offering durability and precision. This innovation allowed writers to produce finer, consistent scripts and reduced wear on tools, reflecting the era’s demand for craftsmanship and reliability.

The 19th century also brought the fountain pen, a groundbreaking invention patented by Lewis Waterman in 1884. 

With its continuous ink supply through a reservoir system, the fountain pen eliminated the need for dipping and blotting. This made writing more convenient and accessible, paving the way for mass literacy and correspondence. 

Its elegance and efficiency cemented its place as a staple for decades.

The mid-20th century saw the advent of the ballpoint pen. In 1938, Hungarian journalist LászlóBíró patented the first commercially successful model. Its tiny rotating ball dispensed ink smoothly and consistently, offering a portable, mess-free alternative to fountain pens. 

Affordable and practical, it democratised writing for people worldwide and became a global phenomenon.

In today’s digital age, some predict the pen's obsolescence due to keyboards, touchscreens, and voice recognition. Yet, the pen endures as a cherished tool for personal expression and creativity. Stylus pens for tablets and smartphones demonstrate the pen's adaptability in a tech-driven world, ensuring its continued relevance. 

Beyond its practical uses, the pen symbolises literacy, education, and the power of ideas. From signing historic documents to penning heartfelt letters, writing with a pen connects us to our past, present, and future selves. Its tactile nature fosters intimacy and mindfulness, qualities often absent in digital tools.

In conclusion, the pen's history reflects human ingenuity and the enduring power of written communication. 

From ancient Mesopotamia to modern innovations, the pen has been a steadfast companion in humanity's journey of self-expression and discovery. As we embrace technology, let us remember the timeless significance of the pen as a tool for creativity, connection, and cultural continuity.

Lessons we learn from Panchatantra

BLIND MEN AND THE ELEPHANT

 

Once, a group of blind men heard that an elephant had been brought to their town. Curious, they decided to learn what an elephant was like by feeling it. Each man approached the animal from a different side. 

The first man touched the elephant’s leg and said, “An elephant is like a pillar, solid and sturdy.”

The second man felt the trunk and declared, “No, an elephant is like a thick, twisting snake.”

The third man, feeling the ear, said, “You are both wrong. An elephant is like a large fan, soft and fluttering.” 

The fourth man, touching the tusk, insisted, “An elephant is sharp and pointy, like a spear.” 

Each man argued, convinced that their perception was the truth. But they couldn’t understand how the elephant could be all these things at once. 

A wise passerby overheard and said, “Each of you is partly right, but none of you is fully correct. The elephant is not just one of these things; it is all of them combined.”

Moral: Our perceptions are limited by our experiences. True understanding requires seeing the whole picture, not just a part of it. To succeed, it’s crucial to acknowledge diverse viewpoints.

Cornerstone of India’s Republic Day celebrations

REPUBLIC DAY TABLEAUX

Tableau of Goa at Republic Day parade 2025

The tradition of showcasing tableaux during the Republic Day parade began in 1950, the same year India became a republic. These creative and colorful displays were introduced to represent the cultural, historical, and socio-economic diversity of the country. Over the years, the tableaux have become a significant part of the parade, narrating India’s rich heritage and modern achievements. Initially, the focus was primarily on cultural and historical themes, but with time, the scope has expanded to include technological advancements, environmental awareness and social progress. Each tableau serves as a visual story reflecting the essence of India.

Significance Of Cultural representation: Each tableau highlights the traditions, art, and culture of a specific state, union territory, or ministry, showcasing India’s diversity. 

National pride: The tableaux serve as a platform to celebrate India’s achievements and innovations in science, technology and governance. 

Unity in diversity: By representing different regions and themes, the tableaux symbolise India’s unity amidst its vast cultural and geographical diversity. 

Global display: As the parade is broadcast worldwide, the tableaux are an opportunity to project India’s heritage, accomplishments and aspirations on an international stage.

Selection process Call for proposals: The Ministry of Defence invites proposals from states, union territories, and central government ministries/departments. The proposals are based on themes related to India’s culture, heritage, development, or significant achievements. 

Theme alignment: The Ministry suggests broad themes each year, such as freedom fighters, environmental conservation, or government. For instance, the theme of 2025 is “Swarnim Bharat: Virasat aur Vikas” (Golden India: Legacy and Progress). Participants align their concepts with these themes. 

Submission of designs: Participants submit detailed sketches, models, or digital presentations of their proposed tableau. These include explanations of the design, theme, and how the concept aligns with the overall theme of the Republic Day parade. 

Expert evaluation: A panel of experts—comprising eminent designers, architects and cultural experts, artists and officials from the Ministry of Defence reviews the submissions. 

The evaluation focuses on:

- Relevance to the theme. 

 - Aesthetic and creative appeal. 

 - Technical feasibility of the design. 

Shortlisting and modifications: A shortlist of designs is prepared and participants may be asked to make modifications to refine their concept or meet technical specifications.

Final approval:  Once the modifications are made, the final list of tableaux is approved. The selected participants are informed to begin the construction of their full-scale tableaux.

Construction and rehearsal: The approved tableaux are constructed and undergo rehearsals to ensure they meet the required standards and fit seamlessly into the parade. Each tableau is mounted on a motorised vehicle or platform, ensuring smooth movement during the parade. 

The tableaux are a cornerstone of India’s Republic Day celebrations, providing a vibrant, dynamic representation of the nation’s spirit and achievements.

Converting power into motion

ENGINES 

Watt Steam Engine 

Engines are machines that are used to change any form of energy into mechanical energy. Mechanical energy is the energy that moves an object. The different types of energy sources are potential energy, heat energy, electrical energy, chemical energy and nuclear energy. 

Steam Engine 

Steam Engines: The first steam engines were developed by Thomas Newcomen in 1731. They were the 'atmospheric' design, which means that atmospheric pressure at the top of the piston pushed it down, lifting the work object. During the Industrial Revolution, the Watt steam engine was developed sporadically from 1763 to 1775 by James Watt and Matthew Boulton. It was the first steam engine to use steam at a pressure just above atmospheric pressure to move the piston. This enabled the development of semi-automated factories in places where waterpower was not available. Development later also led to steam locomotives and the expansion of railway transportation. 

Industrial Steam Engine

Electric Motors: Electric Motors convert electrical energy into mechanical energy. These motors work through the interaction between the motor's magnetic field and electric current in a wire to generate force, which is applied on the motor. They are used in Industrial fans, blowers, pumps, vehicles and household appliances. 

Autoutomobile engine 

Automobiles: Karl Benz developed the first commercially successful automobile. His Benz Patent Motorcar in 1885 is considered the first practical automobile and the first car put into serious production. This automobile had wire wheels with a four-stroke engine of his own design, a very advanced coil ignition and an evaporative cooling system. In 1896, Benz was granted a patent for his design of the first flat engine with horizontally opposing pistons. The pistons moved in horizontal cylinders and reached the top centre simultaneously balancing each other with respect to momentum. This design was used in the Volkswagen Beetle, Citroën 2CV cars, some Porsche cars and Subaru cars.

External Combustion Engine: An external combustion engine is a type of heat engine where the internal working fluid is heated by combustion of an external source through a wall or heat exchanger. The fluid expands and acts on the mechanism of the engine to produce motion and usable work. The fluid is then cooled, compressed and reused or dumped. 

Internal Combustion Engines: Internal Combustion Engines are a type of heat engine where the combustion of fuel occurs with an oxidiser like air in a combustion chamber. This type of engine is used in vehicles. In such engines, fuel, which is a form of chemical energy, is burned. This generates heat, which causes the gases to expand and push down on the pistons in the engine, doing work. The first commercially successful internal combustion engine was created by Etienne Lenoir in 1860 and the first modern internal combustion engine was developed by Nicolaus Otto in 1876.

There are many types of internal combustion engines. They can be grouped in terms of fuel, cycle and configuration. They are typically powered by fossil fuels like natural gas or petroleum derivatives like gasoline, diesel or fuel oil. 

There are three different types of cycles. 

● Two-stroke engines produce power once for every turn of the engine. 

● Four-stroke engine cylinders produce power once for every two turns of the engine. 

● Six-stroke engine cylinders produce power once for every six turns of the engine. 

Cylinders are made of pistons and crankshaft. Any number of cylinders can be used and arranged in many configurations like a straight line, at an angle or in a circle. 

Engines in India: Cooper Corporation was the first company to manufacture diesel engines in India. Some of the best engines made in India include the Nissan 1.3-litre Turbo-Petrol, Mahindra's 1.2-litre Turbo-Petrol (mStallion) and Mahindra's 1.5-litre Turbo-Diesel.