Clues to Earth’s ancient past

FOSSILS 

Imagine you’re exploring a rocky hillside and spot something unusual sticking out of a stone – a spiral shell, a leaf imprint, or even a giant tooth! You may have just discovered a fossil, a piece of history that has been hidden for millions of years. Fossils are nature’s way of preserving clues from the past, showing us what plants and animals looked like long before humans arrived. But how do these ancient remains turn into stone? And what secrets can they reveal?

WHAT ARE FOSSILS? Fossils are the preserved remains, imprints, or traces of plants and animals that lived long ago. Unlike bones or shells we see today, fossils have undergone a process where minerals slowly replaced the original material, turning them into stone. Fossils come in many forms – some are as small as a grain of sand, while others, like dinosaur skeletons, can be bigger than a school bus! Not every ancient creature became a fossil. Fossilisation is a rare and special process that only happens under the right conditions. That’s why every fossil we find is like a precious puzzle piece, helping scientists understand Earth’s history. 

TYPES OF FOSSILS: Fossils come in all shapes and sizes, but they generally fall into a few main categories:• 

BODY FOSSILS – These include bones, teeth, shells and even entire skeletons that have turned into stone. They help scientists understand what extinct creatures looked like.• 

TRACE FOSSILS – These aren’t actual body parts but rather evidence of how an ancient animal lived. Fossilised footprints, nests, burrows or even preserved poop (called coprolites) tell us about an animal’s behaviour!

Not all fossils are made of rock – some are trapped in other materials like amber or ice, preserving even the tiniest details of prehistoric life.

AMBER FOSSILS – Sometimes, small insects, leaves or even lizards get trapped in sticky tree sap, which hardens into golden amber over millions of years. These fossils give us a crystal-clear look at creatures from the past!• 

PETRIFIED WOOD – When trees fall and get buried under layers of sediment, minerals slowly replace their wood fibres, turning them into colourful rock. Petrified forests exist around the world, showing us trees that grew millions of years ago.

WHAT CAN FOSSILS TELL US? Fossils are like nature’s history books, telling the story of how life on Earth has changed over time. By studying fossils, scientists (called palaeontologists) can:

RECREATE EXTINCT ANIMALS – Fossils help scientists figure out what dinosaurs, woolly mammoths, and other long-gone creatures looked like.

UNDERSTAND EVOLUTION – Fossils provide evidence of how plants and animals have changed and adapted over millions of years. For example, fossilised feathered dinosaurs helped prove that birds evolved from dinosaurs! 

TRACK EARTH'S CLIMATE – By studying fossils, scientists can tell what Earth’s environment was like in the past. Fossils of tropical plants in Antarctica show that it was once much warmer!

DISCOVER NEW SPECIES – Every year, new fossils are found, revealing animals and plants that no one knew existed. Some are small, like ancient insects, while others are giant, like the Spinosaurus, the largest carnivorous dinosaur ever found!

FOSSILS DON’T JUST APPEAR OVERNIGHT – it takes millions of years for them to form! Here’s how it happens:

BURIAL IN SEDIMENT – When a plant or animal dies, it needs to be quickly buried in mud, sand or volcanic ash. If it’s left exposed, it will decay, and no fossil will form.

MINERAL REPLACEMENT – Over time, groundwater seeps into the buried remains. The water carries minerals that slowly replace the organic material, hardening it into stone.

PRESSURE AND TIME – Layers of rock build up over millions of years, preserving the fossil deep underground.

DISCOVERY – Erosion, earthquakes or digging by scientists eventually brings the fossil back to the surface, ready to reveal its secrets!

Chinese folktale

SHISYOKIN'S DREAM 

In China, a young man named Shisyokin had a dream in which a goddess appeared and told him that he would find a large amount of gold on the banks of the "Hwang Ho" river. 

The next day, despite waiting all day, Shisyokin found nothing. When the goddess appeared again in his dream, he went and waited again, but still found nothing. When he was about to leave, a vegetable seller there asked him why he had come. 

When Shisyokin narrated his dream, the seller laughed and said, "Do not believe in such things. In my dream, too, the goddess came and said that there is a large amount of gold under the tree in front of a house belonging to a man named Shisyokin." 

Shisyokin hurried back home and dug under the tree in front of his own house—the one mentioned in the vegetable seller's dream. And there, he found the gold!

The story comes full circle and teaches a beautiful lesson: sometimes, what you're searching for far and wide is actually right where you started—at home.

Do you know

WHY DO SNAKES HISS?

Snakes hiss primarily as a defense mechanism. Here's why they do it:

1. Warning signal: The hiss is meant to intimidate or scare off potential threats without resorting to a physical confrontation. 

2. Territorial behavior: Some snakes may hiss to assert dominance over a space, especially if they feel cornered.

3. No vocal cords needed: Snakes don’t have vocal cords. Instead, they produce the hissing sound by forcibly exhaling air through their glottis, which vibrates a small piece of cartilage to create that distinctive sound.

4. Camouflage enhancer: In some cases, hissing can mimic other sounds in nature (like a predator's growl or a larger animal's presence), adding a psychological layer to their defense.

Pine snake 

The pine snake (Pituophis melanoleucus) is known to have one of the loudest and most intense hisses among snakes. It's so powerful that it can sound like a high-pressure release of steam or even mimic the growl of a larger animal.

What makes it interesting is that the pine snake has a special flap of tissue in its glottis that enhances the sound, almost like a reed in a wind instrument. This allows it to amplify and control the pitch of its hiss—pretty sophisticated for a creature without vocal cords!

Other loud hissers include:

Bullsnakes (closely related to pine snakes)

Cobras (they also spread their hoods for extra drama)

Rattlesnakes (hiss along with their rattle for double threat effect)

How do snakes hiss?

Snakes hiss by forcibly exhaling air through their glottis, a small opening in the throat located just behind the tongue. Here's a step-by-step of how it works:

1. Air expelled from lungs: The snake forcefully pushes air out of its single functional lung (most snakes have just one main lung).

2. Glottis involvement: The air passes through the glottis, a slit-like structure in the windpipe.

3. Cartilage vibration: Inside the glottis, there's a small piece of cartilage that can vibrate as air rushes through, much like a reed in a wind instrument. This produces the hissing sound.

4. Mouth often closed: Unlike other animals that might open their mouths wide to vocalise, snakes usually hiss with their mouth closed or just slightly open.

5. Modulation: Some snakes, like the pine snake, can even modulate the sound to make it louder or change pitch, depending on the situation.

It’s all breath and no vocal cords—just clever use of air and anatomy.

The Spearhead of Indian Pace Attack

JASPRIT BUMRAH 

Jasprit Bumrah is a name that has redefined fast bowling in Indian cricket. Known for his unique action, lethal yorkers, and calm demeanor, Bumrah has emerged as one of the most dependable and feared bowlers in international cricket.

Born on December 6, 1993, in Ahmedabad, Gujarat, Bumrah’s journey to the top has been nothing short of inspiring. He made his debut for India in January 2016 during an ODI series against Australia. From there, he quickly rose through the ranks, making his Test debut in 2018 against South Africa.

Humble Beginnings: Bumrah’s Family Background

Jasprit Bumrah’s success story is rooted in a tale of resilience and determination. He was born into a middle-class Sikh family. His father, Jasbir Singh Bumrah, passed away when Jasprit was just seven years old, leaving his mother, Daljit Bumrah, to raise him and his sister alone. Daljit, a school principal, supported the family single-handedly and played a crucial role in Bumrah’s disciplined upbringing.

Despite financial constraints, his mother never let anything come between Jasprit and his dream of playing cricket. Her sacrifices and strength have been a major source of inspiration for him. Even today, Bumrah remains grounded and credits his mother for shaping his journey.

Rise to Stardom: What sets Bumrah apart is his ability to bowl consistently at high speeds with pinpoint accuracy. His unorthodox action initially raised eyebrows, but it has since become his biggest strength. Bumrah’s trademark toe-crushing yorkers, especially in the death overs, have won India many close matches. His variations and deceptive slower balls make him a complete package, especially in limited-overs cricket.

In Test cricket, Bumrah has proven that he is much more than a white-ball specialist. He has delivered match-winning performances in challenging overseas conditions, including memorable spells in England, Australia, and South Africa. His contribution was instrumental in India’s historic Test series wins in Australia in 2018–19 and 2020–21.

Record-Breaking Achievements

Bumrah's career has been full of remarkable milestones:

First Asian bowler to take five-wicket hauls in South Africa, England, and Australia in the same year (2018)

Fastest Indian pacer to reach 100 Test wickets

Best bowling figures by an Indian pacer in a World Cup match

Most wickets for India in a debut calendar year in ODIs (2016)

Only bowler to bowl 10 maiden overs in a World Cup match (2023)

Fastest Indian to 50 T20I wickets

Top performer in the ICC World Test Championship (2021–2023)

These achievements reflect not just his skill but his consistency and dedication to the game.

Calm Under Pressure: 

Bumrah’s temperament is another standout feature. He rarely shows emotion on the field, instead focusing on outsmarting the batter with skill and strategy. Even under pressure, he remains composed, making him a leader in the bowling unit.

Despite battling injuries at times, Bumrah has always made strong comebacks. His recent performances after returning from a long injury layoff have shown that he continues to be a force to reckon with. 

Jasprit Bumrah is married to Sanjana Ganesan. They tied the knot on March 15, 2021, in a private ceremony held in Goa. Sanjana Ganesan is a well-known sports presenter and a formal model from Pune, Maharashtra. She has hosted various sports events, including the Indian Premier League, IPL and Cricket World Cups.

They have a son named Angad.

In a country traditionally known for its spinners, Jasprit Bumrah has brought about a fast-bowling revolution. With many more years of cricket ahead of him, he is poised to leave an enduring legacy. His story—rising from humble beginnings to becoming a world-class bowler—is an inspiration to young athletes everywhere.

Do you know

HOW DO INSECTS LIKE MOSQUITOES WALK ON WATER?

Insects like mosquitoes can walk (or more commonly, stand) on water due to the following reasons:

1. Surface Tension: Water molecules are strongly attracted to each other, especially at the surface. This creates a sort of "film" at the surface that resists external force—called surface tension. Small, lightweight insects don't exert enough force to break through this tension.

2. Hydrophobic Legs: Mosquitoes and other water-walking insects have hydrophobic (water-repellent) legs. Their legs are covered with microscopic hairs and waxy substances that repel water, helping them stay on top without sinking.

3. Weight Distribution: They have long, spread-out legs that distribute their tiny body weight over a wider area. This reduces pressure on any single point on the water surface.

So, they're not really walking in the usual sense—they're kind of “floating” on water. 

The soul of patriotic cinema

MANOJ "BHARAT" KUMAR 

On April 4, the Indian film industry lost a legend, and the nation lost one of its proudest storytellers. Manoj Kumar was not just an actor, director, or writer — he was Bharat Kumar, a man who turned cinema into a canvas of patriotism, social change, and cultural pride.

Manoj Kumar was more than an actor; he was the embodiment of patriotism, culture, and social awakening in Indian cinema. His legacy transcends his films, leaving an indelible mark on the hearts of audiences. When he passed away on April 4, the world lost not just an artist, but a beacon of national pride.

Born Harikrishna Giri Goswami on July 24, 1937, Manoj Kumar’s journey was one of perseverance and extraordinary talent. Inspired by Dilip Kumar, he chose the name ‘Manoj’ from a character in the film Shabnam. Despite early hardships, he rose to stardom, carving out a unique space in an era dominated by glamour and entertainment.

What set Manoj Kumar apart was his focus on patriotism and social consciousness. In Shaheed, his portrayal of Bhagat Singh’s sacrifice left audiences awestruck, reigniting the spirit of independence. During the 1965 Indo-Pak war, he created Upkar, a film that beautifully depicted the importance of both soldiers and farmers to the nation’s survival. His role earned him the title ‘Bharat Kumar,’ a fitting tribute to his dedication to India and cinema.

Films like Purab Aur Paschim and Kranti showcased his commitment to preserving Indian values amidst global influences. His characters weren’t just heroes; they were symbols of cultural pride, and the powerful dialogues from his films continue to resonate today. His work wasn’t merely for entertainment—it was a call to action, urging society to reflect on its identity and progress.

Manoj Kumar was also a thoughtful director and writer, blending entertainment with education. He wasn’t swayed by the changing tides of cinema; his films retained a simple, value-driven narrative. Movies like Roti, Kapda Aur Makaan highlighted the struggles of common people, making his films not just art, but instruments of social change. His commitment to Indian values extended beyond his screen persona. Simplicity was his hallmark, and it reflected in his work. Despite accolades like the Padma Shri and the Dadasaheb Phalke Award, his true honour lay in the love and respect he earned from audiences.

Manoj Kumar’s passing is not the end of an era but the continuation of his inspiring legacy. His films remain a guiding light for future generations, proving that cinema is more than just entertainment—it is a powerful force for social transformation. His patriotism, respect for culture, and unwavering dedication to his craft will continue to inspire for years to come.

Today, as Indian cinema evolves with technology and global influence, the values championed by Manoj Kumar serve as an important compass. His storytelling reminds filmmakers and audiences alike that cinema has the power to unite, to heal, and to ignite a sense of purpose. In a world that often forgets its roots, Manoj Kumar’s work calls us back—reminding us of who we are, and what we stand for. His vision lives on, not just in celluloid, but in the soul of a nation that continues to dream.

Smallest country in the world

VATICAN CITY 

The smallest country in the world by both area and population is Vatican City.

Area: About 0.49 square kilometers (0.19 square miles).

Population: Around 800 people.

It's an independent city-state entirely surrounded by Rome, Italy, and serves as the spiritual and administrative center of the Roman Catholic Church.

Political Status: Vatican City is an independent sovereign state, established in 1929 through the Lateran Treaty between the Holy See and Italy.

It is the spiritual headquarters of the Roman Catholic Church and the residence of the Pope, the spiritual leader of Catholics worldwide.

Government: It’s an absolute monarchy — the Pope holds full executive, legislative, and judicial powers. The Pope is also the head of state.

Language and Currency:

Official Language: Latin (used in official documents), but Italian is commonly spoken.

Currency: Euro (€), even though Vatican City is not a member of the EU.

Major Landmarks:

St. Peter's Basilica – One of the largest churches in the world, built over the tomb of Saint Peter.

St. Peter's Square – Famous for its grand open space and events led by the Pope.

The Vatican Museums – Home to vast collections of art and historical artifacts, including the Sistine Chapel, which has Michelangelo’s famous ceiling.

Population: Around 800 residents, but only about half are Vatican citizens. Citizens include the Pope, cardinals, Swiss Guards (who protect the Pope), and other officials.

Interesting Facts:

Vatican City has its own radio station, post office, newspaper, and even an astronomical observatory.

It has no airport or railway system, but there’s a heliport and a small railway track used occasionally.

The Vatican issues its own passports, license plates, and stamps.