DO YOU KNOW

What is a Mud Lion?

Also called yardangs, mud lions form in deserts where conditions are hot and dry. When winds full of sands blow forcefully in one direction against rock, the rock is abraded over a period of time, sometimes hundreds of years, into fantastic shapes. Yardang is Turkic for 'steep bank'.

Soft rock such as limestone and sandstone lend themselves better to scouring by sand, but rock made of harder materials can also form mud lions. 

Mud lions are also seen in clusters or in a long ridge. Though the name suggests animal shape, a yardang can resemble a human figure or a building-like structure. 

In Africa, especially in the Egyptian desert, there are numerous yardangs. In fact, historians think that the Sphinx of Giza might have begun as a mud lion which inspired sculptors to carve it further into its present form!

Elsewhere in the world, these weird structures can be seen in North American national parks located in desert areas. Some of the mud lions are so battered by wind that they have tunnels bored into them!

NIO

National Institute of Oceanography

The National Institute of Oceanography, founded on 1 January 1966 as one of 38 constituent laboratories of the CSIR, is a self-governing research organisation in India that conducts scientific research and studies on the unique oceanographic features of the northern Indian Ocean. It is headquartered in Goa and has regional offices in Kochi, Mumbai, and Visakhapatnam.

History: By the 1950s, oceanographers all over the world realised that, while progress had been made in describing and understanding the observed features of the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, the Indian Ocean remained largely unexplored. It was critical to address fundamental oceanographic issues related to the northern Indian Ocean's monsoonal cycles, chemical properties of the water column, abundance and distribution of food resources such as fish productivity, and understanding the geology of the Indian Ocean through sea bed mapping and sampling.

These are important not only to the global community of researchers, but also to the large population that lives in the countries surrounding the Indian Ocean in general, and the North Indian Ocean in particular. As a result, the international community of oceanographers organised the International Indian Ocean Expedition (IIOE) from 1959 to 1965 to describe and understand the basic features of the Indian Ocean. This expedition was enthusiastically supported by the Government of India. As the IIOE approached its conclusion, the government decided that the Indians who had participated in the expedition needed an institution where they could build on the oceanographic research skills they had learned during the expedition. The National Institute of Oceanography (NIO) was founded as a result of these considerations. Dr. N.K. Panikkar, Padma Shri, was appointed director of this institute, a position he held until his retirement in May 1973.

Today, the institute employs approximately 170 scientists (sanctioned strength is 200), 120 of whom hold Ph.D.'s, 210 technical and support staff, and 120 administrative staff. The faculty and staff are spread across four campuses: Goa, Mumbai, Kochi, and Visakhapatnam. The main campus is in Dona Paula, Goa, where approximately 80% of the employees work.

Research contribution: A project on polymetallic nodules, which has been funded by the Government of India for over 25 years, is an example of the institute's dual role. By the late 1970s, the government had determined that the country's mineral resources of strategic importance needed to be expanded. NIO was tasked with exploring the oceans for this purpose. NIO recovered polymetallic nodules from a depth of 4,800 meters in the western Indian Ocean on 26 January 1981, using its first research vessel, RV Gaveshani, which was purchased in 1976.

Subsequently, work by NIO researchers helped India to gain the status of "Pioneer Investor" from the International Sea Bed Authority. While this research was aimed at placing the country in a strategically enhanced position, it also provided the institute an opportunity to study the marine geology and geophysics of the Indian Ocean. Some of the issues they addressed are the following: Evolution of the Indian tectonic plates and its implications; determination of the time when the Himalayas started rising leading to monsoonal climate of the Indian subcontinent; nature of mid-ocean ridges (where new crusts form); characteristics of marine sedimentary facies; the role of rivers on the Indian subcontinent in marine sediment budget and paleoclimatic evolution as archived in the sediment cores.

During the first decade and a half of its founding, besides developing its main campus at Goa, a major project taken up by the institute was organising the first Indian Expedition to Antarctica in 1981. This project, together with exploration for polymetallic nodules, established close ties between NIO and the then Department of Ocean Development and subsequently the Ministry of Earth Sciences, Government of India. These ties helped the institute to grow while the government expanded the infrastructure for ocean research, technology and services in the country.

Since the early 1980s, an important theme for basic research in the institute has been, and continues to be, understanding oceanographic implications of the special characteristics of the North Indian basin, which has some unique features: the basin is strictly tropical, with the Asian landmass restricting it south of about 25 degrees N; it is a relatively small basin when compared to the North/South Atlantic/Pacific and even the South Indian Ocean and, of course, there is the seasonality imposed by the monsoons. In the figure above red areas represent areas with elevation of a few kilometers. The presence of the Tibetan Plateau and the Himalayas influences the monsoons.

NIO's scientists have made handsome contributions to understanding the implications of these special features through observations and analyses. The former have included ship-based observations, time-series data collected with moored instruments and satellite data. ORV Sagar Kanya, which was acquired by the Government of India for use by oceanographic research institutions in India, has been playing a major role in these observations.

As noted earlier, an important theme of research at NIO has been understanding the oceanography of the North Indian Ocean – a tropical and small basin driven by strongly seasonal winds. The uppermost 200 m (oceans are on average about 4000 m deep) form the most active portion of the ocean. Here, major currents are forced by winds, and primary producers (microscopic plants that drift with currents) set the stage for intricate interactions that go across the traditional boundaries between disciplines, leading to a new discipline, biogeochemistry of the oceans. Some of NIO's most cited research contributions have been about two aspects of the upper layer: its circulation and biogeochemistry. Currents in this layer are driven by winds. As these are periodic over the North Indian Ocean, so are the currents, in striking contrast to other tropical regions of the world. The link between the winds and currents, however, is rather intricate. NIO researchers played a leading role in defining the nature of seasonality in the currents over the basin in general, and along the coast of India in particular. Subsequent analysis and model studies showed that the circulation of the North Indian Ocean needs to be looked at holistically across the basin because the winds at a location influence not only the local current, but affect the current at remote locations at a later time owing to the propagation of large-scale waves. For example, it is now known that the winds along the Indian east coast significantly affect the seasonal cycle of the current off the Indian west coast.

By restricting the North Indian Ocean to south of 25° N, the Asian landmass prevents the basin from having access to the sub-tropical convergence zone, a region that usually occurs at a latitude of about 40° and is an important supplier of oxygen to the ocean. Not having access to such a regime, the North Indian Ocean is starved of oxygen. Another reason why oxygen is low is the consequence of high concentration of the primary producers of the region. When these plants and zooplankton that feed on them die and sink they get microbially degraded, thus consuming oxygen. NIO researchers have played a major role in answering critical questions concerning the processes that go on in this basin with lower than normal oxygen levels. Some of the questions that have been addressed are the following: Does the monsoon cycle lead to other seasonal cycles, such as that of biological production and flux of sinking particles? What are the special features of biogeochemistry of the ocean regime with low oxygen? How do the biogeochemical processes (denitrification, for example) that characterize this system work? What are the physical processes that sustain high productivity in the region? How does the monsoon cycle influence temporal evolution of ecosystems in the region?

The research contributions (journal publications, reports, books, etc.) from the institute that provide details about the contributions mentioned above are available from the NIO website, www.nio.org.

Intellectual property: NIO possesses about 50 patents, 60% of which are related to marine biotechnology research. Organisms in the marine environment carry molecules that could be useful in the development of new drugs and other healthcare products. This is a new area of study for NIO researchers. Their research has resulted in research papers and intellectual property for the institute.

Marine instrumentation is another area of research for which the institute has received patents. The Maya AUV is an autonomous underwater vehicle (AUV) developed by the institute.

Services: NIO researchers have undertaken a number of projects in service of the industry in India. One of the first projects taken up by NIO on acquiring its research vessel RV Gaveshani was demarcation of a pipeline for carrying oil from India's first offshore oil field at Bombay High. This project was undertaken at the request of India's public sector organisation, the Oil and Natural Gas Commission (ONGC). Since then, NIO has carried out a number of projects for India's public sector undertakings and private enterprises. The list of NIO's clientele includes major petroleum companies and ports. NIO's services have been used in the development of coastal areas by Bharuch Eco-Aqua Infrastructure Ltd., Ankleshwar, and Coastal Marine Construction & Engineering Ltd., Mumbai. NIO's services have also been sought by central and state governments. Sponsored and consultancy projects taken up by NIO include Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA), Coastal Zone Management, Resource Surveys, Biofouling & Corrosion studies, and development of marine instruments.

A problem that has been worrying governments around the world during recent years is the transfer of organisms from one port to another located far away owing to transfer of water used by ships for ballast. Such transfer has been shown to lead sometimes to uncontrolled growth of organisms alien to the local ecology, which can then wipe out local fisheries. NIO scientists have played a major role in spreading awareness of the problem in India. In recognition of their efforts, the directorate General of Shipping, Government of India, has sought NIO's help to develop plans for ballast water management in major Indian ports.

Facilities for research

The NIO Data Centre (NIODC) acquires, processes, formats and stores data generated by the institute (from about 1000 cruises during 1973 to 2009) in a database for easy and efficient retrieval and supply to end users.

The library of the institute has a collection of over 35,000 books and bound volumes of journals is almost certainly the largest such collection in the country in the field of oceanography. Besides the print collection, the library has on-line access to over 3,000 journals either by direct subscription or as a part of a consortium. Participation of the library in international programmes has made this library a source of information about Indian oceanographic studies for the rest of the world and also to network with other, larger libraries to access documents not available in its holdings.

Research at the institute is supported by a large number of well-equipped laboratories on its campuses and by the seagoing capability offered by its ships. To support its multi-disciplinary ocean research programmes, the institute plans to maintain a fleet of three research vessels. The smallest of these is the 23 m long coastal research vessel CRV Sagar Sukti. The recently acquired 56.5 m long RV Sindhu Sankalp serves primarily on the continental margins, but it is capable of open-sea voyages. NIO's 80 m long research vessel RV Sindhu Sadhana, which will be capable of full open-sea studies, was constructed at the ABG Shipyard, Surat. It was joined the institute during 2011–12.

The institute has, over time, developed the capability of deploying and retrieving instruments hoisted over moorings in depths from 5 to 5,000 m. These instruments record time-series data during the period of deployment, which can be as long as two years.

Opportunities to pursue research and doctoral studies: To support its varied activities, NIO uses the services of limited-tenure staff, including doctoral students, project assistants and post-doctoral fellows. Their numbers have grown significantly with the growth in research programmes. The largest increase has been in the number of project assistants since CSIR introduced the "Project Assistant Scheme" to tap the services of fresh graduates for enhancing the productivity of its institutions. Hired regularly through walk-in interviews, the fresh graduates are permitted by this scheme to gain hands-on exposure to oceanographic research. The graduates also have the option of becoming doctoral students through the Senior Research Fellow scheme of the Human Resource Development Group (HRDG) of CSIR. A number of universities have recognized NIO as a centre for doctoral research and about 50 scientists from amongst its staff are at present recognized by these universities as doctoral research guides. With the establishment of the Academy for Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), CSIR's institutions are poised to take major initiatives in advanced education in the country. NIO's Research Council has recommended that the institute take steps to start a school of oceanography as early as possible to address the problem of shortage of advanced manpower in ocean sciences in the country. The number of Junior Research Fellows, qualified through NET (i.e., the National Eligibility Test, conducted by CSIR), Senior Research Fellows (selected by HRDG, CSIR) and Project Assistants who are enrolled for Ph.D. in the institute is now 80. Accommodation to doctoral students is usually provided on the institute's residential campus.

ONE OF THE MOST VALUABLE POSSESSIONS

Gold Jewellery

For many eons, human beings have used jewellery to enhance their beauty. Through the course of history, jewellery has been made out of animal bones and claws, mud, ceramics, precious metals, glass, gems and stones. Let’s look at the some of the different styles of jewellery found in India. 

History of jewellery: Jewellery dates back to almost 75,000 years ago when it was made from animal hide and reeds and decorated with animal and fish teeth, bones, shells, berries, pebbles, feathers, tusks and antlers. When humans discovered metals like silver, gold, platinum, titanium, brass and iron and also about their positive effects on the human body, they started making metal jewellery. 

Significance of jewellery: With human evolution, jewellery moved from being mere pieces of beauty to status symbols and objects of financial security. People started wearing jewellery as fashion accessories to express themselves. Pieces of jewellery also became heirlooms that were passed on from generation to generation and down the family tree. Jewellery continues to be one of the most valuable possessions owned by mankind. 

Jewellery of India: According to archeological evidence, the first use of jewellery in India dates back to the Indus Valley Civilisation. People used sharp stones to create jewellery using the technique of polychromy-painting stone beads in different colours. When the Mughals invaded India, they brought with them the technique of gemstone setting and introduced Indians to the use of gems and metals in jewellery making. Their designs were detailed and royal and this made jewellery accessible to only a few, making it a symbol of social status in India. 

Diamonds: Diamonds are one of the few stones that find universal appeal in jewellery. Diamonds were first discovered by Indians in 400 B.C. Their refracting powers made them unique and valuable. Hindus believe that diamonds were created when lightning struck and the first diamond was presented by Lord Krishna to Radha to complement her beauty. Hence they are considered lucky and believed to have curing powers. Diamonds are also considered to protect wearers from evil spirits. Indians also became skilled at the technique of diamond drilling (used to extract diamonds from earth), which they taught the world. The first use of diamonds in jewellery was in 1074 A.D., when the queen of Hungary demanded a diamond in her crown.

Filigree: The process of making this type of jewellery involves joining really thin silver wires together to shape a piece of jewellery. These pieces are not engraved, carved or moulded and thus require high technicality and patience to create. This style is very popular in the eastern states of India. 

Navratna: Navratna jewellery originated in India and is still considered to be religiously significant. The pieces are made using nine gems - diamond, ruby, yellow and blue sapphire, emerald, coral, pearl, hessonite and cat's eye. These jewels are believed to have supernatural powers as they are all connected to celestial bodies. Due to this belief, many people wear this type of jewellery as lucky charms just like kings did in the ancient times. 

Meenakari: Meenakari is the Persian art of colouring the surface of metals by fusing brilliant colours. The art was brought to Varanasi by Persian enamellists around the early 17th century during the Mughal era. Images of Gods or animal figures are engraved on the metal, which are then filled with coloured enamel. This technique makes the piece of jewellery unique. The rising demand for this type of jewellery makes it expensive. 

Jadau: Jadau is made by embedding stones or crystals in gold. The technique to make this style of jewellery was brought to India by the Mughals. This type of jewellery is found in North India and is popular amongst brides. 

Kundan: Kundan originated in the royal courts of Rajasthan and is very similar to jadau as it is made using the technique of embedding. However, in this form, craftsmen embed glass or uncut diamonds, instead of gems, in gold. The content of gold is less as craftsmen focus on showcasing the coloured glass or diamonds. The process of making this jewellery is time consuming and requires detailing, which is why it is quite expensive. 

Ivory jewellery: Jewellery made by carving ivory (derived from elephant tusks) is called ivory jewellery. Usually, bangles and thick necklaces were made from ivory as the raw material (tusks) is not malleable. However, using elephant tusks is now banned and craftsmen create the ivory look from hard plastic. 

Pachchikam: Pachchikam jewellery has numerous theories surrounding its origin. Some believe it was created by Europeans and reached India through trade and others believe it was originally created in India. This type of jewellery is very similar to Kundan as both use uncut diamonds and coloured glass. However, this style is a lot more delicate. Unlike Kundan, only silver is used as a base for this jewellery, making it reasonably priced. 

Thewa: Thewa is a special art of jewellery making, which involves fusing a layer of intricately carved 23 carat gold or silver on molten coloured glass. This style dates back to the Mughal era. The word 'thewa' originates from Rajasthan and literally means 'setting'.

BEWARE OF THAT BITE

Mosquito bite that causes malaria 

 

In India, malaria still poses a serious threat to public health despite considerable improvements in recent years. To save yourself and all around you against this preventable disease, it is essential to understand the risk factors and its preventive measures. 

Recognising the spread of malaria: Plasmodium parasites are the cause of malaria, an infectious disease spread by mosquitoes. Via contaminated blood feeds, the Anopheles mosquito spreads the parasite to people. Because these mosquitoes breed in stagnant water bodies, malaria transmission is more common in locations with poor drainage especially during the monsoon season (June to September) 

In India, who is most vulnerable to malaria? 

* Travellers: People travelling to or relocating to locations where malaria is endemic, especially those that are mountainous, forested or tribal belts, are at high risk. 

* Individuals who live close to bodies of stagnant water: In peri-urban and rural regions, mosquitoes that thrive in puddles, ponds or badly maintained drainage systems constitute a serious menace. 

* People with impaired immune systems: Those with HIV/AIDS, chronic illnesses, pregnant women, and children under five are particularly vulnerable to severe malaria. 

* Communities without adequate preventive measures and sanitation. 

Effective ways to stop malaria:

● Bed nets treated with long-lasting insecticides (LLINs): The most effective way to prevent malaria is to sleep under insecticide treated LLINs. Make sure you have full coverage. Given that they are more susceptible to the illness, pregnant women and small children should especially use LLINs.

● Repellents for insects: Carefully follow the directions on the package when applying repellents containing DEET(Diethyl toluamide), picardin, or IR3535 to exposed skin and clothes. Especially during outdoor activities in the evenings and early mornings when mosquitoes are most active, repellents offer an extra layer of protection. 

● Minimise sites for mosquito breeding: Avoid water stagnation from the areas surrounding your house, making sure drainage systems are in working order, and controlling vegetation close to homes. By supporting neighbourhood-level programmes for trash management, mosquito breeding grounds can be greatly reduced. 

● Indoor Residual Spraying (IRS): Insecticides are frequently sprayed outdoors, and repellents are used indoors as part of public health campaigns to kill mosquitoes. When such programmes are offered in your region,participate in them. IRS campaigns are an effective strategy for managing mosquito populations, and their success depends on community involvement. 

● Early diagnosis and treatment: Seek emergency medical assistance if you have any of the following symptoms, especially after visiting a high-risk area - fever, chills, sweating, headache, muscle pains or exhaustion. Complications and transmission can be avoided with early diagnosis and timely medical care. Effective therapy of malaria and stopping the disease's spread depend on early symptom recognition and medical consultation. 

STORY OF TOLSTOY AND THE YOUNG MAN

Poverty 

One day a young man came to Tolstoy, the famous social thinker and Laureate of Russia. Asking for some help the young man said, "Sir, I am a very poor man. I have no money or means for my livelihood. My life has become very miserable."

Tolstoy looked at him, was surprised and said, "Young man! What do you speak? You appear to be very rich and lucky. Why do you call yourself poor and unfortunate?"

The young man said, "Sir, why are you mocking at my tragic condition and adding salt to my injury? Please be kind to me."

Tolstoy - "No young man! I am not joking, but telling you the truth. You have wealth of millions' worth on your body."

Young man - "Where is that wealth of millions' worth? I hardly have a few pennies in my pocket." 

Tolstoy - "Well, you have two eyes. I have a friend who will buy them for seventy thousand rubles (Russian currency). Tell me, are you willing to part with them?"

Young man - "Oh sir! What are you talking about? If I give you my eyes, I will be fully blind. The whole world will become empty for me. I will not be able to enjoy anything. Therefore, I can't even imagine giving up my eyes."

Tolstoy - Well, if not the eyes, then give both your ears to my friend, and he will give you sixty thousand rubles. Is it acceptable to you?"

Young man - "I cannot part with my ears. If I give up my ears, how will I hear anything?"

Tolstoy - "Then I have a brother, he will be pleased to buy both your hands for eighty thousand rubles. So, you will give your hands to him. Is it right?"

Young man - "Sir! You must be joking! How can I give my hands? Without hands, how will I work and conduct myself? How will I lift the things, even my food and drinks? My two hands alone are the means of existence and subsistence for me. How can I do away with them? Should I make myself a handicap and become worthless forever?"

Tolstoy - "It seems that you are not aware of your other precious possessions. OK, let alone your hands, sell away both your legs. I will buy them myself for ninety thousand rubles. Are you willing?"

Young man - "Sir, if I sell my both legs, I will become totally crippled. I am already a destitute. If I don't have legs, I will become more worthless and totally dependent on others. Therefore, I will definitely not be able to sell my legs."

Tolstoy - "Right, even now you have many valuables, like nose, head etc. and all together, they will be worth millions, yet you seem not willing to sell them. But by now you have understood that you are not really poor. You have limbs worth millions, but due to ignorance and poverty of right thinking you consider yourself to be poor. Tell me from your heart, are you not having millions upon you?"

Young man - "Yes sir, now I realise that I was myself worth millions, but was mis-judging myself to be poor. You have kindly opened my eyes. Tell me, what should I do now, in order to get rid of my apparent poverty?"

Tolstoy said, "Young man you are indeed very fortunate. You have the valuable capital of labour. Take this axe of mine, and earn your fortune by hard work."

The young man paid respects to Tolstoy and went away happily with the axe. 

That is how the person suffers from his mental poverty, till he resolves to endeavour for his betterment, through hard work and sincerity. 

A MOTHER WHO OVERCAME ADVERSITY

 Mary Ann Bevan

Among all human relationships, the bond between a mother and child is perhaps the most sacred one. We've all heard endless tales of a mother's unselfishness, sacrifice, and perseverance. 

How Did She Become 'The Ugliest Woman In The World'?

Born in 1874 in East London, Mary Ann had a tough yet regular childhood. She eventually trained to become a nurse and got married. Shortly thereafter, she had four children and life was usual. But destiny, probably had other plans for her. She was affected by a hormonal condition called acromegaly which caused bone and facial disfigurement. Unfortunately, there was no proper treatment for that precise ailment back then.

As the disease crept in, her once attractive appearance changed drastically over a period of a few years. Meanwhile, her husband passed away suddenly. As if that was not enough, due to her gross appearance she lost her job and all her attempts at finding new means of livelihood went futile. Stressed and embarrassed by her worsening condition, and also widowed at a young age, she was solely liable to provide for her four small children. Her seemingly normal life was utterly disrupted.

As it is often stated, desperate times call for desperate measures. In absolute helplessness, Mary Ann entered the bizarre competition of 'The Ugliest Woman In The World.' Winning the weird title must have been humiliating for her, yet from that day on there was no looking back. She was hired as a 'freak show' performer in Coney Island's Dreamland sideshow. During the 1900s, freak shows served as popular entertainment for the masses. Freaks were people with rare and atypical physical deformities. In the current situation, it might sound strange but this was long before the concepts of inclusivity and body shaming had come into being.

Although her grotesque bodily features were visible to others, her pains and agonies weren't, and for those she had to be more or less constantly under treatment. Despite the physical suffering and the indignity, Mary Ann Bevan in her given state did her best of what could have been done. Throughout her life until she died at the age of 59, she toured different cities and participated in several shows in England and later on in the United States as well. By doing so, she could successfully feed and educate her four children. It is said that every now and then, she would show her children's picture to the people around her, particularly mentioning about the son who was posted in the army. Mary Ann Bevan's story reminds us how cruel at times fate, and in particular the human world can be. At the same time, if we look on the positive side, her life personifies her indomitable spirit as well. As a human being, a woman, and above all a doting mother, Mary Ann Bevan's journey is profoundly inspirational.

ZEN TALE

Walking on water 

Once, three young monks sat on the bank of a river in meditation. The youngest of the monks said, "I'd be able to concentrate better if I could sit on my prayer mat." He got up and walked across the river to fetch his prayer mat from the hermitage. 

The seniormost monk said, "I can't believe it! When did he learn to walk on water?"

Just then, the other monk got up with a start. "Oh, no! I've left my laundry in the bucket! If I don't hang them up to dry, I shan't have dry clothes to change into!" And he too ran across the river to the hermitage. 

"He can walk on water too!" said the astonished seniormost monk. "Well, if those two can, surely I should be able to do it too."

He stepped into the river but his feet went right through the water. He would have drowned if the other two monks hadn't come to his rescue. 

Feeling humiliated, he left the monastery. Subsequently he got married and had children. 

Then one day, he took his family to see the old monastery. 

Father! Father! Look at that monk walking across the river!" shouted his son excitedly. 

"Yes my son, the monks here are able to walk on water."

When the monk reached the bank, the boy ran to him. 

"Please will you teach me to walk on water?" he asked. 

The monk burst out laughing. "All right, but make sure you follow my steps carefully!" he said. 

The little boy caught hold of the monk's hand and grabbed his robe from behind with the other. Then very carefully, he put his leg in the river just as he saw the monk do, and stepping on the pathway of stones just below the surface, he walked across to the other side. 

METAMORPHOSIS

Life cycle of butterfly 🦋 

The life cycle of a butterfly consists of four stages: egg, caterpillar (larva), pupa (chrysalis), and an adult butterfly. Here's a simple explanation of each stage:

1. Egg : A butterfly starts its life as a tiny egg. The female butterfly lays the egg on a leaf. The egg is usually very small and has a round or oval shape. It is attached to the leaf with a special glue-like substance. 

2. Caterpillar (Larva): When the egg hatches, a caterpillar emerges. The caterpillar is the second stage of the butterfly's life cycle. It’s a small, worm-like creature with a soft body. The caterpillar eats (leaves) a lot and grows rapidly. It sheds its outer skin several times to accommodate its increasing size. 

3. Pupa (Chrysalis): After the caterpillar has grown and eaten enough, it forms a protective case around itself called a chrysalis or pupa. Inside the chrysalis, the caterpillar undergoes transformation. It turns into a butterfly but stays hidden within the case. 

4. Adult butterfly: Once the transformation is complete, the adult butterfly emerges from the chrysalis. At first, its wings are small and wet, but they quickly expand and dry out. The butterfly pumps fluid into its wings, allowing them to become strong and ready for flight. The adult butterfly feeds on nectar from flowers and plays a vital role in pollination. 

This beautiful transformation from an egg to a butterfly is called metamorphosis. It is an incredible process in nature that allows butterflies to change and grow. 

DO YOU KNOW

Why paper cuts hurt?

The main reason why paper cuts are so painful primarily lies in the fact that you usually get them on your fingers, particularly your fingertips. Fingertips and hands have significantly more nociceptors (nerve fibres) per square millimeter than most of the rest of your body, such as your legs, arms stomach area etc. This ends up making cuts on your fingertips feel significantly more painful than cuts elsewhere, even when they are produced by paper or similar objects. 

But why do paper cuts seem to hurt more than other types of cuts on the hand? This is thought to be because the edges of paper are very dull and flexible, compared to knives and other such sharp objects. Because of this, when paper cuts your flesh, it does a lot more microscopic damage as it rips through your skin. Not only is there more microscopic damage, but this damage is also very shallow on the skin. This will further increase the pain because some of the most sensitive nerves in your skin, which have very low thresholds to trigger, are near the surface. They also tend to hurt longer because they won't bleed much and sometimes not at all. This leaves the nerves open to the air other irritants, so they will continue to be in an activated state for much longer than more significant cuts. 

ENERGY FROM HEAT INSIDE THE EARTH

Geothermal Energy

The word 'geothermal' is a combination of the words 'geo' which means 'Earth' and 'thermal' which means heat. The name gives us a hint as to how it is produced. The inside of the planet is scorching. This heat sometimes breaks through the Earth in the form of geysers and volcanoes. The heat from these is known as geothermal energy.

History: Geothermal energy has been utilised for many centuries. The ancient Romans took it further and used hot springs to heat flooring and baths. The first use of Geothermal energy for electricity was in 1904 when the geothermal electric generator was invented. The first-ever geothermal plant was set in Larderello, Italy, in 1904. Steam from that geothermal source was used to turn a small turbine that powered five light bulbs. A few years later, in 1911, the first geothermal electric plant was built. In the 1940s, a heat pump was developed, which was used to heat buildings. 

The Geological Survey of India has found around 340 hot springs across India. Most of India’s hot springs are located along the following five major regions - the NW-SE Himalayan arc system extended to Andaman Nicobar Island, Son-Narmada-Tapti lineament, West Coast continental margin with its adjacent and surrounding areas, Gondwana graben and Delhi fold regions. 

The Process: Geothermal energy can be used through geothermal heat pumps. At 10ft below sea level, the ground has a consistent temperature between 10 and 15 degree Celsius. This temperature remains constant, allowing geothermal heat pumps to maintain water at a constant temperature. By moving the water through through the ground, it can be heated during the winter or cooled during the summer. A heat exchanger can then use this water to heat or cool the air in homes. 

Geothermal energy can also be used to generate electricity. Power plants take advantage of water 3.2kms deep in the ground. 

Water is utilised in several ways. 

* Dry steam engine: It takes steam from cracks in the ground to drive a turbine. The heated water vapour (steam) is directed towards a turbine that drives an electrical generator. 

* Flash points: These pull hot water with high pressure and mix it with cool water. This process creates steam, which drives a turbine.

* Binary cycle: In this process, heated water is drawn through a set of pipes and much of the energy stored in the heated water is transferred to a working fluid, such as ammonia, through a heat exchanger. The active liquid is vaporised to spin turbines and generate electricity. 

Applications: Geothermal energy is also used to heat individual buildings with directly and to heat multiple buildings with district heating systems. Hot water near the Earth’s surface is piped into buildings for heat. A district heating system provides warmth for most of the buildings in Reykjavik, Iceland. In fact, 87% of the country’s homes are heated using geothermal energy. 

Industrial applications of geothermal energy include food dehydration (drying), gold mining and milk pasteurising. Moreover, geothermal energy can be used in the desalination of water, heavy water production, extraction of minerals from geothermal fluids and seasoning of timber. However, geothermal energy is presently utilised mainly for power generation and space heating purposes only. 

Advantages: 

* Since fossil fuel reserves are limited, geothermal energy is an alternative that emits fewer harmful gases than when fossil fuels are burned. It produces 0.03% of the emissions that coal produces and 0.05% of the emissions that natural gas produces. 

* Geothermal energy does not require as much energy to be utilised. Moreover, technology has been developing exponentially, making discoveries every day. Each new step might hold the key to a sustainable world. 

Disadvantages:

* Geothermal energy can only be found in some areas, such as Iceland. 

* Sometimes, harmful gases can be released from the ground while digging, which negatively impacts the ozone layer. 

* The cost of building geothermal plants is exceptionally high. However, as technology develops, the prices should fall. 

HISTORICAL EVENT OF THE MONTH

Assassination of Rajiv Gandhi

 

21 May in India is observed as Anti-Terrorism Day to commemorate the death anniversary of former Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi, who was assassinated by a suicide bomber. 

On May 21, 1991, at 10:10p.m., Rajiv Gandhi, former Prime Minister of India, was killed in a bomb blast that occurred during an election rally at Sriperumbudur near Chennai in Tamil Nadu. The blast was triggered by Dhanu, a Sri Lankan Tamil suicide bomber who detonated an explosive-laden belt concealed under her dress while stooping to touch his feet. Fifteen people, including Rajiv Gandhi and Dhanu, were killed on the spot while three succumbed to their injuries in hospital; 44 were injured. 

The assassination was carried out by the Liberation of Tamil Eelam (LTTE), a Tamil terrorist outfit operating in Sri Lanka, who opposed the deployment of the military contingent Indian Peace Keeping Force (IPKF) in Sri Lanka as part of the agreement between the two governments when Rajiv Gandhi was Prime Minister. With the elections near, the LTTE feared that Rajiv Gandhi's return to power would result in a return of the IPKF and a crackdown on the LTTE network in India. 

The case was immediately entrusted to the CBI, who formed a Special Investigation Team to find the culprits. A 3-month-long hunt ended with the suicide of Sivarasan, the mastermind behind the assassination, along with his chief accomplice Subha and five others when the police closed in on their hideout in Bangalore.

DO YOU KNOW

What is mad honey?

It is the honey produced by bees which feed on the nectar of certain species of rhododendron flowers. These flowers have a natural neurotoxin called grayanotoxin in their nectar. The bees pollinating these flowers pass the toxin into the honey which when consumed, induces hallucinogenic effects in people. 

Dark reddish in colour, this honey has been historically produced in the Black Sea region of Turkey. There is an interesting account relating to mad honey dating back to 401 B.C. A company of Greek soldiers passing through Turkey took violently ill and became disoriented after eating honey from beehive along the route. They recovered the next day. In another account, in 69 B.C., the invading Roman army of Pompey the Great was tricked by the locals into eating the honey. When the Roman became delirious and nauseated, the enemy soldiers swooped in and killed them.

Mad honey is eaten only in small amounts like medicine. Eating too much can cause hallucinations, vomiting, dizziness, irregular heartbeats and fainting. The symptoms are rarely fatal.

 

As rhododendron grow in high altitudes, the bees usually make their hives in sheer cliffs. In Nepal, members of the Gurung tribe go to extraordinary lengths to gather the honey. They climb down treacherous cliffs on long rope ladders with no protective gear, smoke out the bees and then cut away the hives dripping with honey. 

THE BREAD OF THE DESERT

The Date 

The Date (Phoenix dactylifera), a native of the deserts of Arabia, is popularly called the 'bread of the desert'. An ancient fruit that finds mention in the Quran and the Old Testament, the Date is a key food source for millions living across the Middle East and North Africa. 

Dates grow on the Date palm, a tall evergreen tree that reaches up to 30 metres in height. Usually unbranched, it has long leaves that surround the trunk in a spiral pattern. Because of its tenacity in sprouting in the driest of deserts, the tree is viewed as a symbol of fertility and has been depicted on monuments and coins. Its shape is even thought to have inspired a style of columns in Greek architecture. Each palm produces five to ten bunches of Dates. A single large bunch may contain more than a thousand Dates, and can weigh between 6 to 8 kg. The tree begins to bear fruit at 3 to 5 years, and reaches full production after about a decade. 

The fruit is characterised by its succulent, soft flesh and the single hard seed in the middle. Unripe Dates are green in colour and mature to reddish-brown when fully ripe. 

The Date is not just a delicious fruit but a powerhouse of nutrition, as it is packed with body-building and disease-fighting proteins, minerals and vitamins. It is high in sugar content and provides energy. Vitamin C present in Dates helps lower blood pressure by dilating the blood vessels, and also lowers bad cholesterol level in the blood. Further, the fruit is rich in fibre and an excellent source of potassium. Its high iron content helps keep anaemia at bay.

According to an old Arab saying, the uses of the Date palm are as many as the number of days in the year. All the parts of the tree are put to commercial use - the trunk for timber, the leaves for weaving mats and baskets, the bark as building material, and the sap as an ingredient in baking. Even the Date stone (seed) finds use as cattle feed, after being soaked and powdered. 

STORY

Prayer for contentment

 

Once Lord Vishnu was very much pleased with the tapasya (penance) of a devotee and said, "I shall grant you three requests."

The elated devotee did not hesitate, "Here is my first request," he said, "I want my wife to die so I can marry a better woman." His wish was immediately granted. 

But when his friends and relatives gathered for the funeral and began to recall the virtues of his wife, the devotee saw he had been hasty. So he asked the Lord to bring her back to life. 

That left him with just one more petition. He was determined not to make a mistake this time, for there would be no chance to change it. He consulted widely. 

Some advised him to ask for immortality. But what good was immortality, said others, if he did not have good health? And health if he had no money? And money if he had no friends?

Years passed and he had still not made his choice, life or health or wealth or power or love. Finally he said to the Lord, "Tell me what to ask for."

The Lord laughed when he saw the man's predicament, and said, "Ask to be content no matter what you get."

MAKING A CAREER

The hospitality industry

 

Every large hotel has many teams working round the clock to ensure that all the operations take place smoothly. These teams are managed by extremely capable managers in different leadership roles. Let's look at a few people involved with running a hotel. 

General Manager (GM): The GM is at the top of the hierarchy in a hotel's management. The GM's role is to ensure maximum customer satisfaction. To make that possible, the GM makes sure that services provided follow a well-defined system that caters to predetermined quality standards. The main role of GM is to oversee the recruitment of staff, advertising agencies, brand builders, complaints, planning for fewer or more visitors, expansion plans and financial and budget reviews. 

Director Of Finance (DOF): The DOF reports to the GM. The DOF supervises the finance department, is involved in budget planning, makes adjustments for unexpected challenges, manages the hotel's relationship with its bank to ensure a steady cash flow and handles tax compliance, foreign exchange, salaries and so on. 

Resident Manager (RM): The RM is someone who resides on the hotel property. The RM is responsible for supervising all the daily activities of the hotel such as customer service, reservations and front desk operations and ensures that the property is well maintained. The RM along with the front office manager, verifies the paperwork of guests and liaisons with the local police station for international travellers, monitors security cameras and ensures general security in the hotel. At times, when the GM is unavailable the RM manages all the activities. Another important responsibility is to make sure the property's goals are met without exceeding the budget. 

Purchase Manager (PM): The PM attends to all the procurement requirements to ensure the hotel functions smoothly. The PM is actively involved in obtaining competitive quotations for hotel requirements and ensuring that the best products are sourced and purchased. When the purchases are delivered, it is this person's responsibility to check and approve the delivered items. The PM also keeps track of the stocks and verifies the pending orders daily. Since this person handles the purchases, he or she works with the finance department by providing information about rising prices to make accommodations in the hotel's budget plan. 

Front Office Manager (FOM): The FOM supervises the front desk operations, ensuring that the customers can check in with ease. The FOM also handles customer complaints, provides clear instructions to front desk personnel and ensures proper accounting of customer details. The FOM is generally the first person the customer meets and is thus the face of the hotel. Since the FOM interacts with customers daily, his or her inputs are crucial in the hotel's marketing activities and development plan. The FOM's duties also include handling cash, checking the cash for counterfeit notes and handling credit. 

Sales Manager (SM): The SM reports to the GM and is responsible for proactive direct sales, marketing, telemarketing, direct mail, appointment calls and tours of the hotel. This person stategises on how to boost sales and revenue for the hotel. 

Executive Chef (EC): The EC is in charge of the kitchen and hence the food that is served to customers. This person's culinary responsibilities include designing new recipes, planning menus, selecting plate presentations, taking stock of food and equipment supplies and obtaining feedback on the food. The EC is also involved in hiring, training and supervising staff and ensuring hygienic practices are followed in the kitchen at all times. 

Hotelier in focus: Rai Bahadur Mohan Singh Oberoi 

Rai Bahadur Mohan Singh Oberoi, the founder of Oberoi Group of hotels, began his illustrious career in the hotel industry as a front desk clerk at the Cecil Hotel in Shimla. His hard work resourcefulness and ability to take on additional responsibilities earned him a promotion as the Manager of the hotel and allowed him to gain first-hand experience by operating a newly acquired hotel, the Clarke Hotel. His business acumen soon saw the hotel reap huge profits and that was the beginning of his acquisitions. He was the first Indian hotelier to enter the international market and opened the first modern five-star hotel in the country. The Oberoi Intercontinental in New Delhi opened in 1965. From then on, he revolutionised the hotel industry through many of his initiatives. In 2001, the Government of India awarded him the Padma Bhushan. 

SHORT MORAL STORY

The foolish weaver

 

A weaver and his wife lived in a village. He went to the forest to get the wood he needed to repair his loom. As he began to chop the tree, a djinn appeared and asked him not to cut his abode. In return, the djinn offered to give anything that the weaver wanted. The weaver left the forest to discuss this with his wife. The greedy and dimwitted wife told the weaver to ask the djinn for an extra head and two extra hands so he could think more and work work more. 

The stupid weaver agreed and went back to the djinn, which immediately granted the wish. 

The weaver happily walked back to the village, where people thought him to be a monster and beat him to death. 

Moral: Lack of understanding, improper judgment and wrong decisions can lead to several missed opportunities and land anyone in trouble. 

ONE OF THE OLDEST FORTS IN DELHI

Purana Qila

The Purana Qila, also known as Qila-i-Kunha and Shergarh, is one of the oldest forts in Delhi. It was built in the 1530s inside Din Panah, which was a small city in Delhi. Recent studies have also suggested that the site of construction was the old city of Indraprastha, the capital city of Pandavas. Interestingly, excavations done at the site have also thrown up pottery fragments that date back to the 4th century BC.

The fort was constructed by Mughal emperor Humayun and later renovated by Afghan ruler Sher Shah Suri. The fort itself is rectangular in shape, with extremely tall walls and three gates around it. All the walls are supported by bastions, which are embellished with coloured marble and blue tile work. The fort originally stood on the banks of the Yamuna River before the river changed its course. Therefor, the westward wall was built in a way that it protected the fort from being submerged. 

The gates, which are double storied and built with red sandstone, show Muslim and Hindu architectural styles. The northernmost gate is the Tallaqi Darwaza or the Forbidden Gate and entry from here is prohibited. It is engraved with panels and a painting that shows a fight between a human and a lion. In the olden days, the emperor and his family used this gate to go in and out of the fort. The two other gates are Humayun Darwaza or the South Gate and Bara Darwaza or the West Gate, which is now used as the entry point. The gates are known for their engraved balconies, chattris and pavilion.

The three prominent attractions here include the Sher Mandal, which is now a memorial in honour of Humayun's death. This was being built as a personal observatory and library for Humayun. Unfortunately, Humayun fell from the second floor of this building and died. Entry to the library is thus restricted. The Quila-i-Kunha Masjid, which was constructed in 1541 by Sher Shah Suri, is known for its inscriptions from Quran. The Archaeological Museum here showcases objects that are as old as 1000 BC. These include antiques, paintings, pottery and utensils from the Mauryan, Mughal, Gupta and Rajput periods. 

* The Quila-i-Kunha Mosque has a single dome and five entrance doorways. 

* The fort is now used as a venue for a sound and light show that showcases the history of Delhi. 

* The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) has discovered a rare 12th-century sculpture of Lord Vishnu and terracotta seals from the Gupta period here. 

* The walls of the fort are 20mts tall and 4mts thick. The fort is enclosed by two walls - one inside the wall and one exterior wall. Between the walls, there was a water body to prevent attacks. 

* After the Mughals, the fort lost its glory till the British arrived. Edwin Lutyens designed the Viceroy's House (now called Rashtrapati Bhawan, where the Indian President resides) at an elevation so it would look at the Purana Qila. During World War II, the fort was used as a campsite for 3,000 Japanese civilians. After India got its independence, it was used to set up refugee camps during Partition. 

MAY 7

World Athletics Day

Athletics is a group of sporting events that include competition running, throwing, walking and jumping. World Athletics Day is celebrated annually on May 7. The first celebrations were held in 1996, when Primo Nebiolo, the former President of Worldwide Athletic Federation IAAF, decided to celebrate the day to educate and promote athletics among youth as a primary sport.

Meet top 5 Indian athletes 

* Gurbachan Singh Randhawa won a gold medal at the 1962 Asian Games in the decathlon and was the first athlete in India to be felicitated with the Arjuna Award, in 1961.

* Milkha Singh, better known as the Flying Sikh, is the only athlete to win gold in the men's 400mts at the Asian Games as well as the Commonwealth Games. He also won gold at the 1958 and 1962 Asian Games. 

* P. T. Usha, better known as the Queen of Indian Track and Field, won five gold medals and one bronze at the 1985 Jakarta Asian Championships and also set an Asian record in the women's 400mt race. 

* Anju Bobby George is the first and the only Indian athlete to win a medal in World Championship in Athletics. She won a bronze medal in long jump at the Championships in Paris in 2003. George also received the BBC Lifetime Achievement Award for Best Athlete in India. 

* Neeraj Chopra clinched India’s first ever athletics Olympic medal at the Tokyo Olympics 2020. He won the gold in javelin with a throw of 87.58mts.

Did you know?

# The first known person ever to win an athletics event was Korobios - a Greek cook from Elis. He won a 600ft-long stadium race in 776 BC.

# Sprinter Puma Banerjee was India’s first Olympian to be the flag-bearer for the Indian contingent, at the 1920 Summer Olympics in Belgium. 

MORAL STORY

Never trust anyone blindly

Once upon a time, there was a huge neem tree in the forest. An old, blind vulture made his home on the tree. Many birds also built their nests on the tree. Being old and blind, the vulture would struggle to find food. The other birds took pity on the vulture and would feed him their leftover scraps. The blind vulture was so overwhelmed with gratitude that he thought to himself, "All these birds are so kind to me; it is my duty to protect their babies when the birds go out to fetch food."

Thus the vulture would hang around the young fledglings while the birds were out and provide comfort and a sense of safety to the babies. They were all happy with this equation and many years passed by. 

One day a cat was passing by the tree and heard the chirping sounds of the young birds. He was thrilled to have found a place where he could have a good meal every day. With these thoughts, the cat climbed up the tree. The fledglings began to chirp with fear and this alerted the vulture. The blind vulture noticed their anxiety and shouted at once, "Who is there?" The vulture came out and started looking for the intruder. 

The cat, who was standing right in front of the vulture, noticed that the vulture was blind. He picked up courage and fooled the vulture by saying that he had heard about the vulture's good deeds and how kind he was towards the young birds. Finally, the cat said, "I came to ask you to take me as your disciple." The vulture said, "You are an enemy to these birds. I cannot take you. Go away. Otherwise I'll beat you." The persistent cat convinced the vulture that he had given up killing animals and eating meat. He said he had become pious and had pledged that he would survive only on fruits and herbs. He promised never to kill the fledglings. These words softened the vulture. The vulture also fell for the cat's praise and pretentious words of goodness. Finally, the vulture accepted the cat as his disciple. 

The cat started visiting the vulture every day on the pretext of discussing spiritual matters. As days passed by, the young birds also got used to the cat and became friendly with him. The birds and the vulture trusted the cat but the cat was only waiting for an opportunity to strike. One day, when the vulture was taking a nap in the afternoon, the cat quietly came and ate all the fledglings. Once his appetite was fulfilled, he placed the remaining bones in the hole where the vulture resided and left the place quietly. 

When the birds came back that evening, they noticed that all their little ones were missing. They started investigating and finally saw the bones of the fledglings near the vulture's home. They came to the conclusion that the vulture had eaten all the fledglings. They were enraged by the vulture's ingratitude and attacked the vulture. The poor, innocent vulture died without having an opportunity to tell them what really had happened. 

The kindhearted vulture believed the cat's words and lost his life. The cat played a trick to achieve his ambition, fooled the vulture and escaped, landing the vulture in trouble. The cat was selfish and did not care about hurting people to accomplish what he desired. 

The morals of this story are:

* One should not give shelter to the unknown.

* One must always be on guard to watch for deceit.